\input texinfo @c -*- Texinfo -*- @comment %**start of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.) @setfilename make.info @settitle Make @setchapternewpage odd @comment %**end of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.) @iftex @finalout @end iftex @comment Combine the variable and function indices. @synindex vr fn @ifinfo This file documents the GNU Make utility. Copyright (C) 1988-1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. @ignore Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the results, provided the printed document carries copying permission notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph (this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual). @end ignore Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' is included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the text of the translations of the section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' must be approved for accuracy by the Foundation. @end ifinfo @titlepage @sp 10 @center @titlefont{GNU Make} @sp 2 @center A Program for Directing Recompilation @sp 2 @center by Richard M. Stallman and Roland McGrath @sp 3 @center Edition 0.28 Beta, @sp 1 @center last updated 18 September 1991, @sp 1 @center for @code{make}, Version 3.61 Beta. @page @vskip 0pt plus 1filll Copyright @copyright{} 1988-1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. @sp 2 This is Edition 0.28 Beta of the @cite{GNU Make Manual}, @* last updated 18 September 1991, @* for @code{make} Version 3.61 Beta. @sp 2 Published by the Free Software Foundation @* 675 Massachusetts Avenue, @* Cambridge, MA 02139 USA @* Printed copies are available for $15 each. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' is included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the text of the translation of the section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' must be approved for accuracy by the Foundation. @end titlepage @page @node Top, Overview, , (dir) @comment node-name, next, previous, up @ifinfo The GNU @code{make} utility determines automatically which pieces of a large program need to be recompiled, and issues the commands to recompile them. This manual describes it and contains the following chapters: @end ifinfo @menu * Overview:: Introducing @code{make}. * Copying:: Copying conditions for GNU @code{make}. * Bugs:: If you have problems, or think you've found a bug. * Simple:: A simple example explained. * Makefiles:: The data base contains rules and variable definitions. * Rules:: A rule says how and when to remake one file. * Commands:: A rule contains shell commands that say how to remake. * Variables:: A variable holds a text string for substitution into rules. * Conditionals::Makefiles that do one thing or another depending on variable values. * Functions:: Functions can do text-processing within @code{make}. * Running:: How to run @code{make}; how you can adjust the way @code{make} uses the makefile. * Implicit:: Implicit rules take over if the makefile doesn't say how a file is to be remade. * Archives:: How to use @code{make} to update archive files. * Features:: GNU @code{make}'s advanced features and how GNU @code{make} relates to other versions of @code{make}. * Missing:: Features of other @code{make}s not supported by GNU @code{make}. * Concept Index::Index of cross-references to where concepts are discussed. * Name Index:: Index of cross-references for names of @code{make}'s variables, functions, special targets and directives. @end menu @node Overview, Copying, Top, Top @chapter Overview of @code{make} The purpose of the @code{make} utility is to determine automatically which pieces of a large program need to be recompiled, and issue the commands to recompile them. This manual describes the GNU implementation of @code{make}, which was implemented by Richard Stallman and Roland McGrath. Our examples show C programs, since they are most common, but you can use @code{make} with any programming language whose compiler can be run with a shell command. In fact, @code{make} is not limited to programs. You can use it to describe any task where some files must be updated automatically from others whenever the others change. To prepare to use @code{make}, you must write a file called the @dfn{makefile} that describes the relationships among files in your program, and the states the commands for updating each file. In a program, typically the executable file is updated from object files, which are in turn made by compiling source files.@refill Once a suitable makefile exists, each time you change some source files, this simple shell command: @example make @end example @noindent suffices to perform all necessary recompilations. The @code{make} program uses the makefile data base and the last-modification times of the files to decide which of the files need to be updated. For each of those files, it issues the commands recorded in the data base. @iftex Command arguments to @code{make} can be used to control which files should be recompiled, or how. @xref{Running}. @end iftex @node Copying, Bugs, Overview, Top @include gpl.texinfo @node Bugs, Simple, Copying, Top @chapter Problems and Bugs If you have problems with GNU @code{make} or think you've found a bug, please report it to Roland McGrath; he doesn't promise to do anything but he might well want to fix it. Before reporting a bug, make sure you've actually found a real bug. Carefully reread the documentation and see if it really says you can do what you're trying to do. If it's not clear whether you should be able to do something or not, report that too; it's a bug in the documentation! Before reporting a bug or trying to fix it yourself, try to isolate it to the smallest possible makefile that reproduces the problem. Then send us the makefile and the exact results @code{make} gave you. Also say what you expected to occur; this will help us decide whether the problem was really in the documentation. Once you've got a precise problem, send email to (Internet) @samp{bug-gnu-utils@@prep.ai.mit.edu} or (UUCP) @samp{mit-eddie!prep.ai.mit.edu!bug-gnu-utils}. Please include the version number of @code{make} you are using. You can get this information with the command @samp{make -v -f /dev/null}.@refill Non-bug suggestions are always welcome as well. If you have questions about things that are unclear in the documentation or are just obscure features, ask Roland McGrath; he'll be happy to help you out (but no promises). You can send him electronic mail at Internet address @samp{roland@@prep.ai.mit.edu} or UUCP path @samp{mit-eddie!prep.ai.mit.edu!roland}.@refill @node Simple, Makefiles, Bugs, Top @chapter Simple Example of @code{make} Suppose we have a text editor consisting of eight C source files and three header files. We need a makefile to tell @code{make} how to compile and link the editor. Assume that all the C files include @file{defs.h}, but only those defining editing commands include @file{commands.h} and only low level files that change the editor buffer include @file{buffer.h}. To recompile the editor, each changed C source file must be recompiled. If a header file has changed, to be safe each C source file that includes the header file must be recompiled. Each compilation produces an object file corresponding to the source file. Finally, if any source file has been recompiled, all the object files, whether newly made or saved from previous compilations, must be linked together to produce the new executable editor. Here is a straightforward makefile that describes these criteria and says how to compile and link when the time comes: @example edit : main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \ insert.o search.o files.o utils.o cc -o edit main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \ insert.o search.o files.o utils.o main.o : main.c defs.h cc -c main.c kbd.o : kbd.c defs.h command.h cc -c kbd.c commands.o : command.c defs.h command.h cc -c commands.c display.o : display.c defs.h buffer.h cc -c display.c insert.o : insert.c defs.h buffer.h cc -c insert.c search.o : search.c defs.h buffer.h cc -c search.c files.o : files.c defs.h buffer.h command.h cc -c files.c utils.o : utils.c defs.h cc -c utils.c @end example We split each long line into two lines using a backslash-newline; this is like using one long line, but is easier to read. Each file that is generated by a program---that is to say, each file except for source files---is the @dfn{target} of a @dfn{rule} (@pxref{Rules}). (In this example, these are the object files such as @file{main.o}, @file{kbd.o}, etc., and the executable file @file{edit}.) The target appears at the beginning of a line, followed by a colon. After the colon come the target's @dfn{dependencies}: all the files that are used as input when the target file is updated. A target file needs to be recompiled or relinked if any of its dependencies changes. In addition, any dependencies that are themselves automatically generated should be updated first. In this example, @file{edit} depends on each of the eight object files; the object file @file{main.o} depends on the source file @file{main.c} and on the header file @file{defs.h}. By default, @code{make} starts with the first rule (not counting rules whose target names start with @samp{.}). This is called the @dfn{default goal}. Therefore, we put the rule for the executable program @file{edit} first. The other rules are processed because their targets appear as dependencies of the goal. After each line containing a target and dependencies come one or more lines of shell commands that say how to update the target file. These lines start with a tab to tell @code{make} that they are command lines. But @code{make} does not know anything about how the commands work. It is up to you to supply commands that will update the target file properly. All @code{make} does is execute the commands you have specified when the target file needs to be updated. @section How @code{make} Processes This Makefile After reading the makefile, @code{make} begins its real work by processing the first rule, the one for relinking @file{edit}; but before it can fully process this rule, it must process the rules for the files @file{edit} depends on: all the object files. Each of these files is processed according to its own rule. These rules say to update the @samp{.o} file by compiling its source file. The recompilation must be done if the source file, or any of the header files named as dependencies, is more recent than the object file, or if the object file does not exist. Before recompiling an object file, @code{make} considers updating its dependencies, the source file and header files. This makefile does not specify anything to be done for them---the @samp{.c} and @samp{.h} files are not the targets of any rules---so nothing needs to be done. But automatically generated C programs, such as made by Bison or Yacc, would be updated by their own rules at this time. After recompiling whichever object files need it, @code{make} can now decide whether to relink @file{edit}. This must be done if the file @file{edit} does not exist, or if any of the object files are newer than it. If an object file was just recompiled, it is now newer than @file{edit}, so @file{edit} will be relinked. Thus, if we change the file @file{insert.c} and run @code{make}, @code{make} will compile that file to update @file{insert.o}, and then link @file{edit}. If we change the file @file{command.h} and run @code{make}, @code{make} will recompile the object files @file{kbd.o}, @file{commands.o} and @file{files.o} and then link file @file{edit}. @section Variables Make Makefiles Simpler In our example, we had to list all the object files twice in the rule for @file{edit} (repeated here): @example edit : main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \ insert.o search.o files.o utils.o cc -o edit main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \ insert.o search.o files.o utils.o @end example @vindex objects Such duplication is error-prone; if a new object file is added to the system, we might add it to one list and forget the other. We can eliminate the risk and simplify the makefile by using a @dfn{variable}. Variables allow a text string to be defined once and substituted in multiple places later (@pxref{Variables}). It is standard practice for every makefile to have a variable named @code{objects}, @code{OBJECTS}, @code{objs}, @code{OBJS}, @code{obj} or @code{OBJ} which is a list of all object file names. We would define such a variable @code{objects} with a line like this in the makefile:@refill @example objects = main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \ insert.o search.o files.o utils.o @end example @noindent Then, each place we want to put a list of the object file names, we can substitute the variable's value by writing @samp{$(objects)} (@pxref{Variables}). Here is how the rule for @code{edit} looks as a result: @example edit : $(objects) cc -o edit $(objects) @end example @section Letting @code{make} Deduce the Commands It is not necessary to spell out the commands for compiling the individual C source files, because @code{make} can figure them out: it has an @dfn{implicit rule} for updating a @samp{.o} file from a correspondingly named @samp{.c} file using a @samp{cc -c} command. For example, it will use the command @samp{cc -c main.c -o main.o} to compile @file{main.c} into @file{main.o}. We can therefore omit the commands from the rules for the object files. @xref{Implicit}.@refill When a @samp{.c} file is used automatically in this way, it is also automatically added to the list of dependencies. We can therefore omit the @samp{.c} files from the dependencies, provided we omit the commands. Here is the entire example, with both of these changes, and a variable @code{objects} as suggested above: @example objects = main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \ insert.o search.o files.o utils.o edit : $(objects) cc -o edit $(objects) main.o : defs.h kbd.o : defs.h command.h commands.o : defs.h command.h display.o : defs.h buffer.h insert.o : defs.h buffer.h search.o : defs.h buffer.h files.o : defs.h buffer.h command.h utils.o : defs.h @end example @noindent This is how we would write the makefile in actual practice. @section Another Style of Makefile Since the rules for the object files specify only dependencies, no commands, one can alternatively combine them by dependency instead of by target. Here is what it looks like: @example objects = main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \ insert.o search.o files.o utils.o edit : $(objects) cc -o edit $(objects) $(objects) : defs.h kbd.o commands.o files.o : command.h display.o insert.o search.o files.o : buffer.h @end example @noindent Here @file{defs.h} is given as a dependency of all the object files; @file{commands.h} and @file{buffer.h} are dependencies of the specific object files listed for them. Whether this is better is a matter of taste: it is more compact, but some people dislike it because they find it clearer to put all the information about each target in one place. @section Rules for Cleaning the Directory Compiling a program isn't the only thing you might want to write rules for. Makefiles commonly tell how to do a few other things besides compiling the program: for example, how to delete all the object files and executables so that the directory is ``clean''. Here is how we would write a @code{make} rule for cleaning our example editor: @example clean: rm edit $(objects) @end example @noindent This rule would be added at the end of the makefile, because we don't want it to run by default! We want the rule for @code{edit}, which recompiles the editor, to remain the default goal. Since @code{clean} is not a dependency of @code{edit}, this rule won't run at all if we give the command @samp{make} with no arguments. In order to make the rule run, we have to type @samp{make clean}. @node Makefiles, Rules, Simple, Top @chapter Writing Makefiles @cindex makefile The information that tells @code{make} how to recompile a system comes from reading a data base called the @dfn{makefile}. @menu * Contents: Makefile Contents. Overview of what you put in a makefile. * Names: Makefile Names. Where @code{make} finds the makefile. * Include:: How one makefile can use another makefile. * MAKEFILES Variable:: The environment can specify extra makefiles. * Remaking Makefiles:: How makefiles get remade. * Overriding Makefiles:: How to override part of one makefile with another makefile. @end menu @node Makefile Contents, Makefile Names, Makefiles, Makefiles @section What Makefiles Contain Makefiles contain four kinds of things: @dfn{rules}, @dfn{variable definitions}, @dfn{directives} and @dfn{comments}. Rules, variables and directives are described at length in later chapters.@refill @itemize @bullet @item A rule says when and how to remake one or more files, called the rule's @dfn{targets}. It lists the other files that the targets @dfn{depend on}, and may also give commands to use to create or update the targets. @xref{Rules}. @item A variable definition is a line that specifies a text string value for a @dfn{variable} that can be substituted into the text later. The simple makefile example (@pxref{Simple}) shows a variable definition for @code{objects} as a list of all object files. @xref{Variables}, for full details. @item A directive is a command for @code{make} to do something special while reading the makefile. These include: @itemize @bullet @item Reading another makefile (@pxref{Include}). @item Deciding (based on the values of variables) whether to use or ignore a part of the makefile (@pxref{Conditionals}). @item Defining a variable from a verbatim string containing multiple lines (@pxref{Defining}). @end itemize @item @cindex comments @samp{#} in a line of a makefile starts a comment. It and the rest of the line are ignored, except that a trailing backslash not escaped by another backslash will continue the comment across multiple lines. Comments may appear on any of the lines in the makefile, except within a @code{define} directive, and perhaps within commands (where the shell decides what is a comment). A line containing just a comment (with perhaps spaces before it) is effectively blank, and is ignored.@refill @end itemize @node Makefile Names, Include, Makefile Contents, Makefiles @section What Name to Give Your Makefile @cindex makefile names @cindex names of makefiles @cindex default makefile names By default, when @code{make} looks for the makefile, it tries the names @file{GNUmakefile}, @file{makefile} and @file{Makefile}, in that order. Normally you should call your makefile either @file{makefile} or @file{Makefile}. (We recommend @file{Makefile} because it appears prominently near the beginning of a directory listing, right near other important files such as @file{README}.) The first name checked, @file{GNUmakefile}, is not recommended for most makefiles. You should use this name if you have a makefile that is specific to GNU @code{make}, and will not be understood by other versions of @code{make}. If @code{make} finds none of these names, it does not use any makefile. Then you must specify a goal with a command argument, and @code{make} will attempt to figure out how to remake it using only its built-in implicit rules. @xref{Implicit}. @cindex @code{-f} If you want to use a nonstandard name for your makefile, you can specify the makefile name with the @samp{-f} option. The arguments @samp{-f @var{name}} tell @code{make} to read the file @var{name} as the makefile. If you use more than one @samp{-f} option, you can specify several makefiles. All the makefiles are effectively concatenated in the order specified. The default makefile names @file{GNUmakefile}, @file{makefile} and @file{Makefile} are not checked automatically if you specify @samp{-f}.@refill @node Include, MAKEFILES Variable, Makefile Names, Makefiles @section Including Other Makefiles @findex include The @code{include} directive tells @code{make} to suspend reading the current makefile and read another makefile before continuing. The directive is a line in the makefile that looks like this: @example include @var{filename} @end example Extra spaces are allowed and ignored at the beginning of the line, but a tab is not allowed. (If the line begins with a tab, it will be considered a command line.) Whitespace is required between @code{include} and @var{filename}; extra whitespace is ignored there and at the end of the directive. A comment starting with @samp{#} is allowed at the end of the line. If @var{filename} contains any variable or function references, they are expanded. (@xref{Variables}.) When @code{make} processes an @code{include} directive, it suspends reading of the containing makefile and reads from @var{filename} instead. When that is finished, @code{make} resumes reading the makefile in which the directive appears. One occasion for using @code{include} directives is when several programs, handled by individual makefiles in various directories, need to use a common set of variable definitions (@pxref{Setting}) or pattern rules (@pxref{Pattern Rules}). Another such occasion is when you want to automatically generate dependencies from source files; the dependencies can be put in a file that is included by the main makefile. This practice is generally cleaner than that of somehow appending the dependencies to the end of the main makefile as has been traditionally done with other versions of @code{make}. If the specified name does not start with a slash, and the file is not found in the current directory, several other directories are searched. First, any directories you have specified with the @samp{-I} option are searched (@pxref{Options}). Then the following directories (if they exist) are searched, in this order: @file{/usr/gnu/include}, @file{/usr/local/include}, @file{/usr/include}. If an included makefile cannot be found in any of these directories, a warning message is generated, but it is not a fatal error; processing of the makefile containing the @code{include} continues.@refill @node MAKEFILES Variable, Remaking Makefiles, Include, Makefiles @section The Variable @code{MAKEFILES} @vindex MAKEFILES If the environment variable @code{MAKEFILES} is defined, @code{make} considers its value as a list of names (separated by whitespace) of additional makefiles to be read before the others. This works much like the @code{include} directive: various directories are searched for those files (@pxref{Include}). In addition, the default goal is never taken from one of these makefiles and it is not an error if the files listed in @code{MAKEFILES} are not found.@refill The main use of @code{MAKEFILES} is in communication between recursive invocations of @code{make} (@pxref{Recursion}). It usually isn't desirable to set the environment variable before a top-level invocation of @code{make}, because it is usually better not to mess with a makefile from outside. However, if you are running @code{make} without a specific makefile, a makefile in @code{MAKEFILES} can do useful things to help the built-in implicit rules work better, such as defining search paths. Some users are tempted to set @code{MAKEFILES} in the environment automatically on login, and program makefiles to expect this to be done. This is a very bad idea, because such makefiles will fail to work if run by anyone else. It is much better to write explicit @code{include} directives in the makefiles. @node Remaking Makefiles, Overriding Makefiles, MAKEFILES Variable, Makefiles @section How Makefiles Are Remade @cindex updating makefiles @cindex remaking makefiles @cindex makefiles, remaking of Sometimes makefiles can be remade from other files, such as RCS or SCCS files. If a makefile can be remade from other files, you probably want @code{make} to get an up-to-date version of the makefile to read in. To this end, after reading in all makefiles, @code{make} will consider each as a goal target and attempt to update it. If a makefile has a rule which says how to update it (found either in that very makefile or in another one) or if an implicit rule applies to it (@pxref{Implicit}), it will be updated if necessary. After all makefiles have been checked, if any have actually been changed, @code{make} starts with a clean slate and reads all the makefiles over again. (It will also attempt to update each of them over again, but normally this will not change them again, since they are already up to date.)@refill If the makefiles specify commands to remake a file but no dependencies, the file will always be remade. In the case of makefiles, a makefile that has commands but no dependencies will be remade every time @code{make} is run, and then again after @code{make} starts over and reads the makefiles in again. This would cause an infinite loop; @code{make} would constantly remake the makefile, and never do anything else. So, to avoid this, @code{make} will @emph{not} attempt to remake makefiles which are specified as targets but have no dependencies.@refill If you do not specify any makefiles to be read with @samp{-f} options, @code{make} will try the default makefile names; @pxref{Makefile Names}. Unlike makefiles explicitly requested with @samp{-f} options, @code{make} is not certain that these makefiles should exist. However, if a default makefile does not exist but can be created by running @code{make} rules, you probably want the rules to be run so that the makefile can be used. Therefore, if none of the default makefiles exists, @code{make} will try to make each of them in the same order in which they are searched for (@pxref{Makefile Names}) until it succeeds in making one, or it runs out of names to try. Note that it is not an error if @code{make} cannot find or make any makefile; a makefile is not always necessary.@refill When you use the @samp{-t} option (touch targets), you would not want to use an out-of-date makefile to decide which targets to touch. So the @samp{-t} option has no effect on updating makefiles; they are really updated even if @samp{-t} is specified. Likewise, @samp{-q} and @samp{-n} do not prevent updating of makefiles, because an out-of-date makefile would result in the wrong output for other targets. Thus, @samp{make -f mfile -n foo} will update @file{mfile}, read it in, and then print the commands to update @file{foo} and its dependencies without running them. The commands printed for @file{foo} will be those specified in the updated contents of @file{mfile}. However, on occasion you might actually wish to prevent updating of even the makefiles. You can do this by specifying the makefiles as goals in the command line as well as specifying them as makefiles. When the makefile name is specified explicitly as a goal, the options @samp{-t} and so on do apply to them. Thus, @samp{make -f mfile -n mfile foo} would read the makefile @file{mfile}, print the commands needed to update it without actually running them, and then print the commands needed to update @file{foo} without running them. The commands for @file{foo} will be those specified by the existing contents of @file{mfile}. @node Overriding Makefiles, , Remaking Makefiles, Makefiles @section Overriding Part of One Makefile with Another Makefile @cindex overriding makefiles Sometimes it is useful to have a makefile that is mostly just like another makefile. You can often use the @samp{include} directive to include one in the other, and add more targets or variable definitions. However, if the two makefiles give different commands for the same target, @code{make} will not let you just do this. But there is another way. In the containing makefile (the one that wants to include the other), you can use the @code{.DEFAULT} special target to say that to remake any target that cannot be made from the information in the containing makefile, @code{make} should look in another makefile. @xref{Last Resort}, for more information on @code{.DEFAULT}. For example, if you have a makefile called @file{Makefile} that says how to make the target @samp{foo} (and other targets), you can write a makefile called @file{GNUmakefile} that contains: @example foo: frobnicate > foo .DEFAULT: @@$(MAKE) -f Makefile $@@ @end example If you say @samp{make foo}, @code{make} will find @file{GNUmakefile}, read it, and see that to make @file{foo}, it needs to run the command @samp{frobnicate > foo}. If you say @samp{make bar}, @code{make} will find no way to make @file{bar} in @file{GNUmakefile}, so it will use the commands from @code{.DEFAULT}: @samp{make -f Makefile bar}. If @file{Makefile} provides a rule for updating @file{bar}, @code{make} will apply the rule. And likewise for any other target that @file{GNUmakefile} does not say how to make.@refill @node Rules, Commands, Makefiles, Top @chapter Writing Rules @cindex rule @cindex target @cindex dependency A @dfn{rule} appears in the makefile and says when and how to remake certain files, called the rule's @dfn{targets} (usually only one per rule). It lists the other files that are the @dfn{dependencies} of the target, and @dfn{commands} to use to create or update the target. The order of rules is not significant, except for determining the @dfn{default goal}: the target for @code{make} to consider, if you do not otherwise specify one. The default goal is the target of the first rule in the first makefile, except that targets starting with a period do not count unless they contain slashes as well; also, a target that defines a pattern rule (@pxref{Pattern Rules}) or a suffix rule (@pxref{Suffix Rules}) has no effect on the default goal. Therefore, we usually write the makefile so that the first rule is the one for compiling the entire program or all the programs described by the makefile. @xref{Goals}. @menu * Rule Example:: An explained example of a rule. * Rule Syntax:: General syntax of rules, with explanation. * Wildcards:: Using wildcard characters like `*' in file names. * Directory Search:: Searching other directories for source files. * Phony Targets:: Using a target that isn't a real file's name. * Force Targets:: A target without commands or dependencies can be used to mark other targets as phony. * Special Targets:: Targets with special built-in meanings. * Empty Targets:: Real files that are empty--only the date matters. * Multiple Targets:: When it is useful to have several targets in a rule. * Static Pattern:: Static pattern rules apply to multiple targets and can vary the dependencies according to the target name. * Multiple Rules:: Using several rules with the same target. * Double-Colon:: Special kind of rule allowing several independent rules for one target. * Commands:: Special features and details of how commands in a rule are executed. @end menu @ifinfo @node Rule Example, Rule Syntax, Rules, Rules @isection Rule Example Here is an example of a rule: @example foo.o : foo.c defs.h # module for twiddling the frobs cc -c -g foo.c @end example Its target is @file{foo.o} and its dependencies are @file{foo.c} and @file{defs.h}. It has one command, which is @samp{cc -c -g foo.c}. The command line starts with a tab to identify it as a command. This rule says two things: @itemize @bullet @item How to decide whether @file{foo.o} is out of date: it is out of date if it does not exist, or if either @file{foo.c} or @file{defs.h} is more recent than it. @item How to update the file @file{foo.o}: by running @code{cc} as stated. The command does not explicitly mention @file{defs.h}, but we presume that @file{foo.c} includes it, and that that is why @file{defs.h} was added to the dependencies. @end itemize @end ifinfo @node Rule Syntax, Wildcards, Rule Example, Rules @section Rule Syntax In general, a rule looks like this: @example @var{targets} : @var{dependencies} @var{command} @var{command} ... @end example @noindent or like this: @example @var{targets} : @var{dependencies} ; @var{command} @var{command} @var{command} ... @end example The @var{targets} are file names, separated by spaces. Wild card characters may be used (@pxref{Wildcards}) and a name of the form @file{@var{a}(@var{m})} represents member @var{m} in archive file @var{a} (@pxref{Archive Members}). Usually there is only one target per rule, but occasionally there is a reason to have more; @xref{Multiple Targets}.@refill The @var{command} lines start with a tab character. The first command may appear on the line after the dependencies, with a tab character, or may appear on the same line, with a semicolon. Either way, the effect is the same. @xref{Commands}. Because dollar signs are used to start variable references, if you really want a dollar sign in the rule you must write two of them (@samp{$$}). @xref{Variables}. You may split a long line by inserting a backslash followed by a newline, but this is not required, as @code{make} places no limit on the length of a line in a makefile. A rule tells @code{make} two things: when the targets are out of date, and how to update them when necessary. The criterion for being out of date is specified in terms of the @var{dependencies}, which consist of file names separated by spaces. (Wildcards and archive members are allowed here too.) A target is out of date if it does not exist or if it is older than any of the dependencies (by comparison of last-modification times). The idea is that the contents of the target file are computed based on information in the dependencies, so if any of the dependencies changes, the contents of the existing target file are no longer necessarily valid. How to update is specified by @var{commands}. These are lines to be executed by the shell (normally @samp{sh}), but with some extra features (@pxref{Commands}). @node Wildcards, Directory Search, Rule Syntax, Rules @section Using Wildcards Characters in File Names @cindex wildcard @cindex file name A single file name can specify many files using @dfn{wildcard characters}. The wildcard characters in @code{make} are @samp{*}, @samp{?} and @samp{[@dots{}]}, the same as in the Bourne shell. For example, @file{*.c} specifies a list of all the files (in the working directory) whose names end in @samp{.c}.@refill @cindex ~ The character @samp{~} at the beginning of a file name also has special significance. If alone, or followed by a slash, it represents your home directory. For example @file{~/bin} expands to @file{/home/you/bin}. If the @samp{~} is followed by a word, the string represents the home directory of the user named by that word. For example @file{~me/bin} expands to @file{/home/me/bin}.@refill Wildcard expansion happens automatically in targets, in dependencies, and in commands. In other contexts, wildcard expansion happens only if you request it explicitly with the @code{wildcard} function. The special significance of a wildcard character can be turned off by preceding it with a backslash. Thus, @file{foo\*bar} would refer to a specific file whose name consists of @samp{foo}, an asterisk, and @samp{bar}.@refill @menu * Examples: Wildcard Examples. Some simple examples. * Pitfall: Wildcard Pitfall. @code{*.o} won't do what you want! * Function: Wildcard Function. How to do wildcard expansion when defining a variable using the function @code{wildcard}. @end menu @node Wildcard Examples, Wildcard Pitfall, Wildcards, Wildcards @subsection Wildcard Examples Wildcards can be used in the commands of a rule. For example, here is a rule to delete all the object files: @example clean: rm -f *.o @end example Wildcards are also useful in the dependencies of a rule. With the following rule in the makefile, @samp{make print} will print all the @samp{.c} files that have changed since the last time you printed them: @example print: *.c lpr -p $? touch print @end example @noindent This rule uses @file{print} as an empty target file; @pxref{Empty Targets}. Wildcard expansion does not happen when you define a variable. Thus, if you write this: @example objects=*.o @end example @noindent then the value of the variable @code{objects} is the actual string @samp{*.o}. However, if you use the value of @code{objects} in a target, dependency or command, wildcard expansion will take place at that time. @node Wildcard Pitfall, Wildcard Function, Wildcard Examples, Wildcards @subsection Pitfalls of Using Wildcards Now here is an example of a naive way of using wildcard expansion, that does not do what you would intend. Suppose you would like to say that the executable file @file{foo} is made from all the object files in the directory, and you write this: @example objects=*.o foo : $(objects) cc -o foo $(CFLAGS) $(objects) @end example @noindent The value of @code{objects} is the actual string @samp{*.o}. Wildcard expansion happens in the rule for @file{foo}, so that each @emph{existing} @samp{.o} file becomes a dependency of @file{foo} and will be recompiled if necessary. But what if you delete all the @samp{.o} files? Then @samp{*.o} will expand into @emph{nothing}. The target @file{foo} will have no dependencies and would be remade by linking no object files. This is not what you want! Actually it is possible to obtain the desired result with wildcard expansion, but you need more sophisticated techniques, including the @code{wildcard} function and string substitution. @ifinfo @xref{Wildcard Function}. @end ifinfo @iftex These are described in the following section. @end iftex @node Wildcard Function, , Wildcard Pitfall, Wildcards @subsection The Function @code{wildcard} @findex wildcard Wildcard expansion happens automatically in rules. But wildcard expansion does not normally take place when a variable is set, or inside the arguments of a function. If you want to do wildcard expansion in such places, you need to use the @code{wildcard} function, like this: @example $(wildcard @var{pattern}) @end example @noindent This string, used anywhere in a makefile, is replaced by a space-separated list of names of existing files that match the pattern @var{pattern}. One use of the @code{wildcard} function is to get a list of all the C source files in a directory, like this: @example $(wildcard *.c) @end example We can change the list of C source files into a list of object files by substituting @samp{.o} for @samp{.c} in the result, like this: @example $(subst .c,.o,$(wildcard *.c)) @end example @noindent (Here we have used another function, @code{subst}. @xref{Text Functions}.)@refill Thus, a makefile to compile all C source files in the directory and then link them together could be written as follows: @example objects:=$(subst .c,.o,$(wildcard *.c)) foo : $(objects) cc -o foo $(LDFLAGS) $(objects) @end example @noindent (This takes advantage of the implicit rule for compiling C programs, so there is no need to write explicit rules for compiling the files. @xref{Flavors}, for an explanation of @samp{:=}, which is a variant of @samp{=}.) @node Directory Search, Phony Targets, Wildcards, Rules @section Searching Directories for Dependencies @vindex VPATH @findex vpath @cindex vpath @cindex search path for dependencies @cindex directory search For large systems, it is often desirable to put sources in a separate directory from the binaries. The @dfn{directory search} features of @code{make} facilitate this by searching several directories automatically to find a dependency. When you redistribute the files among directories, you do not need to change the individual rules, just the search paths. @menu * General Search:: The @code{VPATH} variable specifies a search path that applies to every dependency. * Selective Search:: The @code{vpath} directive specifies a search path for a specified class of names. * Commands/Search:: How to write shell commands that work together with search paths. * Implicit/Search:: How search paths affect implicit rules. * Libraries/Search:: Directory search for link libraries. @end menu @node General Search, Selective Search, Directory Search, Directory Search @subsection @code{VPATH}: Search Path for All Dependencies The value of the @code{make} variable @code{VPATH} specifies a list of directories which @code{make} should search (in the order specified) for dependency files. The directory names are separated by colons. For example: @example VPATH = src:../headers @end example @noindent specifies a path containing two directories, @file{src} and @file{../headers}. Whenever a file listed as a dependency does not exist in the current directory, the directories listed in @code{VPATH} are searched for a file with that name. If a file is found in one of them, that file becomes the dependency. Rules may then specify the names of source files as if they all existed in the current directory. Using the value of @code{VPATH} set in the previous example, a rule like this: @example foo.o : foo.c @end example @noindent is interpreted as if it were written like this: @example foo.o : src/foo.c @end example @noindent assuming the file @file{foo.c} does not exist in the current directory but is found in the directory @file{src}. @node Selective Search, Commands/Search, General Search, Directory Search @subsection The @code{vpath} Directive Similar to the @code{VPATH} variable but more selective is the @code{vpath} directive, which allows you to specify a search path for a particular class of filenames, those that match a particular pattern. Thus you can supply certain search directories for one class of filenames and other directories (or none) for other filenames. There are three forms of the @code{vpath} directive: @table @code @item vpath @var{pattern} @var{directories} Specify the search path @var{directories} for filenames that match @code{pattern}. If another path was previously specified for the same pattern, the new path is effectively appended to the old path.@refill The search path, @var{directories}, is a colon-separated list of directories to be searched, just like the search path used in the @code{VPATH} variable. @item vpath @var{pattern} Clear out the search path associated with @var{pattern}. @item vpath Clear all search paths previously specified with @code{vpath} directives. @end table A @code{vpath} pattern is a string containing a @samp{%} character. The string must match the filename of a dependency that is being searched for, the @samp{%} character matching any sequence of zero or more characters (as in pattern rules; @pxref{Pattern Rules}). (If there is no @samp{%}, the pattern must match the dependency, which is not useful very often.) @samp{%} characters in a @code{vpath} directive's pattern can be quoted with preceding backslashes (@samp{\}). Backslashes that would otherwise quote @samp{%} characters can be quoted with more backslashes. Backslashes that quote @samp{%} characters or other backslashes are removed from the pattern before it is compared to file names. Backslashes that are not in danger of quoting @samp{%} characters go unmolested.@refill When a dependency fails to exist in the current directory, if the @var{pattern} in a @code{vpath} directive matches the name of the dependency file, then the @var{directories} in that directive are searched just like (and before) the directories in the @code{VPATH} variable. For example, @example vpath %.h ../headers @end example @noindent tells @code{make} to look for any dependency whose name ends in @file{.h} in the directory @file{../headers} if the file is not found in the current directory. If several @code{vpath} patterns match the dependency file's name, then @code{make} processes each matching @code{vpath} directive one by one, searching all the directories mentioned in each directive. The @code{vpath} directives are processed in the order in which they appear in the makefiles. @node Commands/Search, Implicit/Search, Selective Search, Directory Search @subsection Writing Shell Commands with Directory Search When a dependency is found in another directory through directory search, this cannot change the commands of the rule; they will execute as written. Therefore, you must write the commands with care so that they will look for the dependency in the directory where @code{make} finds it. This is done with the @dfn{automatic variables} such as @samp{$^} (@pxref{Automatic}). For instance, the value of @samp{$^} is a list of all the dependencies of the rule, including the names of the directories in which they were found, and the value of @samp{$@@} is the target. Thus:@refill @example foo.o : foo.c cc -c $(CFLAGS) $^ -o $@@ @end example @noindent The variable @code{CFLAGS} exists so you can specify flags for C compilation by implicit rule; we use it here for consistency so it will affect all C compilations uniformly (@pxref{Implicit Variables}). Often the dependencies include header files as well, which you don't want to mention in the commands. The function @code{firstword} can be used to extract just the first dependency from the entire list, as shown here (@pxref{Filename Functions}): @example VPATH = src:../headers foo.o : foo.c defs.h hack.h cc -c $(CFLAGS) $(firstword $^) -o $@@ @end example @noindent Here the value of @samp{$^} would be something like @samp{src/foo.c ../headers/defs.h hack.h}, from which @samp{$(firstword $^)} extracts just @samp{src/foo.c}.@refill @node Implicit/Search, Libraries/Search, Commands/Search, Directory Search @subsection Directory Search and Implicit Rules The search through the directories specified in @code{VPATH} or with @code{vpath} happens also during consideration of implicit rules (@pxref{Implicit}). For example, when a file @file{foo.o} has no explicit rule, @code{make} considers implicit rules, such as to compile @file{foo.c} if that file exists. If such a file is lacking in the current directory, the appropriate directories are searched for it. If @file{foo.c} exists (or is mentioned in the makefile) in any of the directories, the implicit rule for C compilation is applicable. The commands of all the built-in implicit rules normally use automatic variables as a matter of necessity; consequently they will use the file names found by directory search with no extra effort. @node Libraries/Search, , Implicit/Search, Directory Search @subsection Directory Search for Link Libraries Directory search applies in a special way to libraries used with the linker. This special feature comes into play when you write a dependency whose name is of the form @samp{-l@var{name}}. (You can tell something funny is going on here because the dependency is normally the name of a file, and the @emph{file name} of the library looks like @file{lib@var{name}.a}, not like @samp{-l@var{name}}.)@refill When a dependency's name has the form @samp{-l@var{name}}, @code{make} handles it specially by searching for the file @samp{lib@var{name}.a} in the directories @samp{/lib} and @samp{/usr/lib}, and then using matching @code{vpath} search paths and the @code{VPATH} search path.@refill For example, @example foo : foo.c -lcurses cc $^ -o $@@ @end example @noindent would cause the command @samp{cc foo.c -lcurses -o foo} to be executed when @file{foo} is older than @file{foo.c} or than @file{libcurses.a} (which has probably been found by directory search in the file @file{/usr/lib/libcurses.a}).@refill As shown by the example above, the file name found by directory search is used only for comparing the file time with the target file's time. It does not replace the file's name in later usage (such as in automatic variables like @code{$^}); the name remains unchanged, still starting with @samp{-l}. This leads to the correct results because the linker will repeat the appropriate search when it processes this argument.@refill @node Phony Targets, Force Targets, Directory Search, Rules @section Phony Targets @cindex phony targets A phony target is one that is not really the name of a file. It is just a name for some commands to be executed when you make an explicit request. If you write a rule whose commands will not create the target file, the commands will be executed every time the target comes up for remaking. Here is an example: @example clean: rm *.o temp @end example @noindent Because the @code{rm} command does not create a file named @file{clean}, probably no such file will ever exist. Therefore, the @code{rm} command will be executed every time you say @samp{make clean}. @findex .PHONY The phony target will cease to work if anything ever does create a file named @file{clean} in this directory. Since it has no dependencies, the file @file{clean} would inevitably be considered up to date, and its commands would not be executed. To avoid this problem, you can explicitly declare the target to be phony, using the special target @code{.PHONY} (@pxref{Special Targets}) as follows: @example .PHONY : clean @end example @noindent Once this is done, @samp{make clean} will run the commands regardless of whether there is a file named @file{clean}. A phony target should not be a dependency of a real target file; strange things can result from that. As long as you don't do that, the phony target commands will be executed only when the phony target is a specified goal (@pxref{Goals}). Phony targets can have dependencies. When one directory contains multiple programs, it is most convenient to describe all of the programs in one makefile @file{./Makefile}. Since the target remade by default will be the first one in the makefile, it is common to make this a phony target named @samp{all} and give it, as dependencies, all the individual programs. For example: @example all : prog1 prog2 prog3 .PHONY : all prog1 : prog1.o utils.o cc -o prog1 prog1.o utils.o prog2 : prog2.o cc -o prog2 prog2.o prog3 : prog3.o sort.o utils.o cc -o prog3 prog3.o sort.o utils.o @end example @noindent Now you can say just @samp{make} to remake all three programs, or specify as arguments the ones to remake (as in @samp{make prog1 prog3}). When one phony target is a dependency of another, it serves as a subroutine of the other. For example, here @samp{make cleanall} will delete the object files, the difference files, and the file @file{program}: @example cleanall : cleanobj cleandiff rm program cleanobj : rm *.o cleandiff : rm *.diff @end example @node Force Targets, Empty Targets, Phony Targets, Rules @section Rules without Commands or Dependencies If a rule has no dependencies or commands, and the target of the rule is a nonexistent file, then @code{make} imagines this target to have been updated whenever its rule is run. This implies that all targets depending on this one will always have their commands run. An example will illustrate this: @example clean: FORCE rm $(objects) FORCE: @end example Here the target @samp{FORCE} satisfies the special conditions, so the target @file{clean} that depends on it is forced to run its commands. There is nothing special about the name @samp{FORCE}, but that is one name commonly used this way. As you can see, using @samp{FORCE} this way has the same results as using @samp{.PHONY: clean}. The latter is more explicit, but other versions of @code{make} do not support it; thus @samp{FORCE} appears in many makefiles. @node Empty Targets, Special Targets, Force Targets, Rules @section Empty Target Files to Record Events @cindex empty targets The @dfn{empty target} is a variant of the phony target; it is used to hold commands for an action that you request explicitly from time to time. Unlike a phony target, this target file can really exist; but the file's contents do not matter, and usually are empty. The purpose of the empty target file is to record, with its last-modification time, when the rule's commands were last executed. It does so because one of the commands is a @code{touch} command to update the target file. The empty target file must have some dependencies. When you ask to remake the empty target, the commands are executed if any dependency is more recent than the target; in other words, if a dependency has changed since the last time you remade the target. Here is an example: @example print: foo.c bar.c lpr -p $? touch print @end example @noindent With this rule, @samp{make print} will execute the @code{lpr} command if either source file has changed since the last @samp{make print}. The automatic variable @samp{$?} is used to print only those files that have changed (@pxref{Automatic}). @node Special Targets, Multiple Targets, Empty Targets, Rules @section Special Built-in Target Names @cindex special targets Certain names have special meanings if they appear as targets. @table @code @item .PHONY The dependencies of the special target @code{.PHONY} are considered to be phony targets. When it is time to consider such a target, @code{make} will run its commands unconditionally, regardless of whether a file with that name exists or what its last-modification time is. @xref{Phony Targets}. @item .SUFFIXES The dependencies of the special target @code{.SUFFIXES} are the list of suffixes to be used in checking for suffix rules. @xref{Suffix Rules}. @item .DEFAULT The commands specified for @code{.DEFAULT} are used for any target for which no other commands are known (either explicitly or through an implicit rule). If @code{.DEFAULT} commands are specified, every nonexistent file mentioned as a dependency will have these commands executed on its behalf. @xref{Search Algorithm}. @item .PRECIOUS @cindex precious targets The targets which @code{.PRECIOUS} depends on are given this special treatment: if @code{make} is killed or interrupted during the execution of their commands, the target is not deleted. @xref{Interrupts}. @item .IGNORE Simply by being mentioned as a target, @code{.IGNORE} says to ignore errors in execution of commands. The dependencies and commands for @code{.IGNORE} are not meaningful. @samp{.IGNORE} exists for historical compatibility. Since @code{.IGNORE} affects every command in the makefile, it is not very useful; we recommend you use the more selective ways to ignore errors in specific commands. @xref{Errors}. @item .SILENT Simply by being mentioned as a target, @code{.SILENT} says not to print commands before executing them. The dependencies and commands for @code{.SILENT} are not meaningful. @samp{.SILENT} exists for historical compatibility. We recommend you use the more selective ways to silence specific commands. @xref{Echoing}. @end table Any defined implicit rule suffix also counts as a special target if it appears as a target, and so does the concatenation of two suffixes, such as @samp{.c.o}. These targets are suffix rules, an obsolete way of defining implicit rules (but a way still widely used). In principle, any target name could be special in this way if you break it in two and add both pieces to the suffix list. In practice, suffixes normally begin with @samp{.}, so these special target names also begin with @samp{.}. @xref{Suffix Rules}. @node Multiple Targets, Static Pattern, Special Targets, Rules @section Multiple Targets in a Rule A rule with multiple targets is equivalent to writing many rules, each with one target, and all identical aside from that. The same commands apply to all the targets, but their effects may vary because you can substitute the actual target name into the command using @samp{$@@}. The rule contributes the same dependencies to all the targets also. This is useful in two cases. @itemize @bullet @item You want just dependencies, no commands. For example: @example kbd.o commands.o files.o: command.h @end example @noindent gives an additional dependency to each of the three object files mentioned. @item Similar commands work for all the targets. The commands do not need to be absolutely identical, since the automatic variable @samp{$@@} can be used to substitute the particular target to be remade into the commands (@pxref{Automatic}). For example: @example @group bigoutput littleoutput : text.g generate text.g -$(subst output,,$@@) > $@@ @end group @end example @noindent is equivalent to @example bigoutput : text.g generate text.g -big > bigoutput littleoutput : text.g generate text.g -little > littleoutput @end example @noindent Here we assume the hypothetical program @code{generate} makes two types of output, one if given @samp{-big} and one if given @samp{-little}.@refill @end itemize @ifinfo Suppose you would like to vary the dependencies according to the target, much as the variable @samp{$@@} allows you to vary the commands. You cannot do this with multiple targets in an ordinary rule, but you can do it with a @dfn{static pattern rule}. @xref{Static Pattern}. @end ifinfo @node Static Pattern, Multiple Rules, Multiple Targets, Rules @section Static Pattern Rules @cindex static pattern rules @cindex varying dependencies @dfn{Static pattern rules} are rules which specify multiple targets and construct the dependency names for each target based on the target name. They are more general than ordinary rules with multiple targets because the targets don't have to have identical dependencies. Their dependencies must be @emph{analogous}, but not necessarily @emph{identical}. @menu * Usage: Static Usage. How to use static pattern rules. * Static vs Implicit:: When are they better than implicit rules? @end menu @node Static Usage, Static vs Implicit, Static Pattern, Static Pattern @subsection Syntax of Static Pattern Rules Here is the syntax of a static pattern rule: @example @var{targets}: @var{target-pattern}: @var{dep-patterns} @dots{} @var{commands} @dots{} @end example @noindent The @var{targets} gives the list of targets that the rule applies to. The targets can contain wildcard characters, just like the targets of ordinary rules (@pxref{Wildcards}). The @var{target-pattern} and @var{dep-patterns} say how to compute the dependencies of each target. Each target is matched against the @var{target-pattern} to extract a part of the target name, called the @dfn{stem}. This stem is substituted into each of the @var{dep-patterns} to make the dependency names (one from each @var{dep-pattern}). Each pattern normally contains the character @samp{%} just once. When the @var{target-pattern} matches a target, the @samp{%} can match any part of the target name; this part is called the @dfn{stem}. The rest of the pattern must match exactly. For example, the target @file{foo.o} matches the pattern @samp{%.o}, with @samp{foo} as the stem. The targets @file{foo.c} and @file{foo.out} don't match that pattern.@refill The dependency names for each target are made by substituting the stem for the @samp{%} in each dependency pattern. For example, if one dependency pattern is @file{%.c}, then substitution of the stem @samp{foo} gives the dependency name @file{foo.c}. It is legitimate to write a dependency pattern that doesn't contain @samp{%}; then this dependency is the same for all targets. @samp{%} characters in pattern rules can be quoted with preceding backslashes (@samp{\}). Backslashes that would otherwise quote @samp{%} characters can be quoted with more backslashes. Backslashes that quote @samp{%} characters or other backslashes are removed from the pattern before it is compared file names or has a stem substituted into it. Backslashes that are not in danger of quoting @samp{%} characters go unmolested. For example, the pattern @file{the\%weird\\%pattern\\} has @samp{the%weird\} preceding the operative @samp{%} character, and @samp{pattern\\} following it. The final two backslashes are left alone because they can't affect any @samp{%} character.@refill Here is an example, which compiles each of @file{foo.o} and @file{bar.o} from the corresponding @file{.c} file: @example objects = foo.o bar.o $(objects): %.o: %.c $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $< -o $@@ @end example Each target specified must match the target pattern; a warning is issued for each target that does not. If you have a list of files, only some of which will match the pattern, you can use the @code{filter} function to remove nonmatching filenames (@pxref{Text Functions}): @example files = foo.elc bar.o lose.o $(filter %.o,$(files)): %.o: %.c $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $< -o $@@ $(filter %.elc,$(files)): %.elc: %.el emacs -f batch-byte-compile $< @end example @noindent Here the result of @samp{$(filter %.o,$(files))} is @file{bar.o lose.o}, and the first static pattern rule causes each of these object files to be updated by compiling the corresponding C source file. The result of @samp{$(filter %.elc,$(files))} is @file{foo.elc}, so that file is made from @file{foo.el}.@refill @node Static vs Implicit, , Static Usage, Static Pattern @subsection Static Pattern Rules versus Implicit Rules A static pattern rule has much in common with an implicit rule defined as a pattern rule (@pxref{Pattern Rules}). Both have a pattern for the target and patterns for constructing the names of dependencies. The difference is in how @code{make} decides @emph{when} the rule applies. An implicit rule @emph{can} apply to any target that matches its pattern, but it @emph{does} apply only when the target has no commands otherwise specified, and only when the dependencies can be found. If more than one implicit rule appears applicable, only one applies; the choice depends on the order of rules. By contrast, a static pattern rule applies to the precise list of targets that you specify in the rule. It cannot apply to any other target and it invariably does apply to each of the targets specified. If two conflicting rules apply, and both have commands, that's an error. The static pattern rule can be better than an implicit rule for these reasons: @itemize @bullet @item You may wish to override the usual implicit rule for a few files whose names cannot be categorized syntactically but can be given in an explicit list. @item If you cannot be sure of the precise contents of the directories you are using, you may not be sure which other irrelevant files might lead @code{make} to use the wrong implicit rule. The choice might depend on the order in which the implicit rule search is done. With static pattern rules, there is no uncertainty: each rule applies to precisely the targets specified. @end itemize @node Multiple Rules, Double-Colon, Static Pattern, Rules @section Multiple Rules for One Target One file can be the target of several rules. All the dependencies mentioned in all the rules are merged into one list of dependencies for the target. If the target is older than any dependency from any rule, the commands are executed. There can only be one set of commands to be executed for a file. If more than one rule gives commands for the same file, the last @code{make} uses the last set given and prints an error message. (As a special case, if the file's name begins with a dot, no error message is printed. This odd behavior is only for compatibility with other @code{make}s.) There is no reason to write your makefiles this way; that is why @code{make} gives you an error message.@refill An extra rule with just dependencies can be used to give a few extra dependencies to many files at once. For example, one usually has a variable named @code{objects} containing a list of all the compiler output files in the system being made. An easy way to say that all of them must be recompiled if @file{config.h} changes is to write @example objects = foo.o bar.o foo.o : defs.h bar.o : defs.h test.h $(objects) : config.h @end example This could be inserted or taken out without changing the rules that really say how to make the object files, making it a convenient form to use if you wish to add the additional dependency intermittently. Another wrinkle is that the additional dependencies could be specified with a variable that you could set with a command argument to @code{make} (@pxref{Overriding}). For example, @example @group extradeps= $(objects) : $(extradeps) @end group @end example @noindent means that the command @samp{make extradeps=foo.h} will consider @file{foo.h} as a dependency of each object file, but plain @samp{make} will not. If none of the explicit rules for a target has commands, then @code{make} searches for an applicable implicit rule to find some commands. @xref{Implicit}. @node Double-Colon, , Multiple Rules, Rules @section Double-Colon Rules @cindex double-colon rule @dfn{Double-colon} rules are rules written with @samp{::} instead of @samp{:} after the target names. They are handled differently from ordinary rules when the same target appears in more than one rule. When a target appears in multiple rules, all the rules must be the same type: all ordinary, or all double-colon. If they are double-colon, each of them is independent of the others. Each double-colon rule's commands are executed if the target is older than any dependencies of that rule. This can result in executing none, any or all of the double-colon rules. Double-colon rules with the same target are in fact completely separate from one another. Each double-colon rule is processed individually, just as rules with different targets are processed. The double-colon rules for a target are executed in the order they appear in the makefile. However, the cases where double-colon rules really make sense are those where the order of executing the commands would not matter. Double-colon rules are somewhat obscure and not often very useful; they provide a mechanism for cases in which the method used to update a target differs depending on which dependency files caused the update, and such cases are rare. Each double-colon rule should specify commands; if it does not, an implicit rule will be used if one applies. @xref{Implicit}. @node Commands, Variables, Rules, Top @chapter Writing the Commands in Rules @cindex commands The commands of a rule consist of shell command lines to be executed one by one. Each command line must start with a tab, except that the first command line may be attached to the target-and-dependencies line with a semicolon in between. Blank lines and lines of just comments may appear among the command lines; they are ignored. Users use many different shell programs, but commands in makefiles are always interpreted by @file{/bin/sh} unless the makefile specifies otherwise. Whether comments can be written on command lines, and what syntax they use, is under the control of the shell that is in use. If it is @file{/bin/sh}, a @samp{#} at the start of a word starts a comment. @menu * Echoing:: Normally commands are echoed before execution, but you can control this in several ways. * Execution:: How commands are executed. * Parallel:: Commands of several rules can be executed in parallel, to reduce total time. * Errors:: What happens after an error in command execution. How to ignore errors in certain commands. * Interrupts:: If a command is interrupted or killed, the target may be deleted. * Recursion:: Invoking @code{make} from commands in makefiles. * Sequences:: Defining canned sequences of commands. * Empty Commands::Defining commands that do nothing (but are useful). @end menu @node Echoing, Execution, Commands, Commands @section Command Echoing @cindex echoing (of commands) @cindex silent operation @cindex @@ (in commands) Normally @code{make} prints each command line before it is executed. We call this @dfn{echoing} because it gives the appearance that you are typing the commands yourself. When a line starts with @samp{@@}, the echoing of that line is suppressed. The @samp{@@} is discarded before the command is passed to the shell. Typically you would use this for a command whose only effect is to print something, such as an @code{echo} command to indicate progress through the makefile: @example @@echo About to make distribution files @end example When @code{make} is given the flag @samp{-n}, echoing is all that happens, no execution. @xref{Options}. In this case and only this case, even the commands starting with @samp{@@} are printed. This flag is useful for finding out which commands @code{make} thinks are necessary without actually doing them. @cindex @code{-s} @findex .SILENT The @samp{-s} flag to @code{make} prevents all echoing, as if all commands started with @samp{@@}. A rule in the makefile for the special target @code{.SILENT} has the same effect (@pxref{Special Targets}). @code{.SILENT} is essentially obsolete since @samp{@@} is more flexible.@refill @node Execution, Parallel, Echoing, Commands @section Command Execution @cindex execution @cindex shell When it is time to execute commands to update a target, they are executed by making a new subshell for each line. (In practice, @code{make} may take shortcuts that do not affect the results.) This implies that shell commands such as @code{cd} that set variables local to each process will not affect the following command lines. If you want to use @code{cd} to affect the next command, put the two on a single line with a semicolon between them. Then @code{make} will consider them a single command and pass them, together, to a shell which will execute them in sequence. For example: @example foo : bar/lose cd bar; gobble lose > ../foo @end example If you would like to split a single shell command into multiple lines of text, you must use a backslash at the end of all but the last subline. Such a sequence of lines is combined into a single line, by deleting the backslash-newline sequences, before passing it to the shell. Thus, the following is equivalent to the preceding example: @example @group foo : bar/lose cd bar; \ gobble lose > ../foo @end group @end example @vindex SHELL The program used as the shell is taken from the variable @code{SHELL}. By default, the program @file{/bin/sh} is used. Unlike most variables, the variable @code{SHELL} will not be set from the environment, except in a recursive @code{make}. This is because the environment variable @code{SHELL} is used to specify your personal choice of shell program for interactive use. It would be very bad for personal choices like this to affect the functioning of makefiles. @xref{Environment}. @node Parallel, Errors, Execution, Commands @section Parallel Execution @cindex parallel execution @cindex execution in parallel @cindex job slots GNU @code{make} knows how to execute several commands at once. Normally, @code{make} will execute only one command at a time, waiting for it to finish before executing the next. However, the @samp{-j} option tells @code{make} to execute many commands simultaneously.@refill If the @samp{-j} option is followed by an integer, this is the number of commands to execute at once; this is called the number of @dfn{job slots}. If there is nothing looking like an integer after the @samp{-j} option, there is no limit on the number of job slots. The default number of job slots is one, which means serial execution (one thing at a time). One unpleasant consequence of running several commands simultaneously is that output from all of the commands comes when the commands send it, so messages from different commands may be interspersed. Another problem is that two processes cannot both take input from the same device; so to make sure that only one command tries to take input from the terminal at once, @code{make} will invalidate the standard input streams of all but one running command. This means that attempting to read from standard input, for most child processes if there are several, will usually be a fatal error (a @samp{Broken pipe} signal). It is unpredictable which command will have a valid standard input stream (which will come from the terminal, or wherever you redirect the standard input of @code{make}). The first command run will always get it first, and the first command started after that one finishes will get it next, and so on. We will change how this aspect of @code{make} works if we find a better alternative. In the mean time, you should not rely on any command using standard input at all if you are using the parallel execution feature; but if you are not using this feature, then standard input works normally in all commands. If a command fails (is killed by a signal or exits with a nonzero status), and errors are not ignored for that command (@pxref{Errors}), the remaining command lines to remake the same target will not be run. If a command fails and the @samp{-k} option was not given (@pxref{Options}), @code{make} aborts execution. If make terminates for any reason (including a signal) with child processes running, it waits for them to finish before actually exiting.@refill When the system is heavily loaded, you will probably want to run fewer jobs than when it is lightly loaded. You can use the @samp{-l} option to tell @code{make} to limit the number of jobs to run at once, based on the load average. The @samp{-l} option is followed by a floating-point number. For example, @example -l 2.5 @end example @noindent will not let @code{make} start more than one job if the load average is above 2.5. The @samp{-l} option with no following number removes the load limit, if one was given with a previous @samp{-l} option.@refill More precisely, when @code{make} goes to start up a job, and it already has at least one job running, it checks the current load average; if it is not lower than the limit given with @samp{-l}, @code{make} waits until the load average goes below that limit, or until all the other jobs finish. By default, there is no load limit. @node Errors, Interrupts, Parallel, Commands @section Errors in Commands @cindex error (in commands) After each shell command returns, @code{make} looks at its exit status. If the command completed successfully, the next command line is executed in a new shell, or after the last command line is executed, the rule is finished. If there is an error (the exit status is nonzero), @code{make} gives up on the current rule, and perhaps on all rules. Sometimes the failure of a certain command does not indicate a problem. For example, you may use the @code{mkdir} command to insure that a directory exists. If the directory already exists, @code{mkdir} will report an error, but you probably want @code{make} to continue regardless. @cindex - (in commands) To ignore errors in a command line, write a @samp{-} at the beginning of the line's text (after the initial tab). The @samp{-} is discarded before the command is passed to the shell for execution. For example, @example clean: -rm -f *.o @end example @cindex @code{-i} @findex .IGNORE When @code{make} is run with the @samp{-i} flag, errors are ignored in all commands of all rules. A rule in the makefile for the special target @code{.IGNORE} has the same effect. These ways of ignoring errors are obsolete because @samp{-} is more flexible. When errors are to be ignored, because of either a @samp{-} or the @samp{-i} flag, @code{make} treats an error return just like success, except that it prints out a message telling you the status code the command exited with and saying that the error has been ignored. When an error happens that @code{make} has not been told to ignore, it implies that the current target cannot be correctly remade, and neither can any other that depends on it either directly or indirectly. No further commands will be executed for these targets, since their preconditions have not been achieved. Normally @code{make} gives up immediately in this circumstance, returning a nonzero status. However, if the @samp{-k} flag is specified, @code{make} continues to consider the other dependencies of the pending targets, remaking them if necessary, before it gives up and returns nonzero status. For example, after an error in compiling one object file, @samp{make -k} will continue compiling other object files even though it already knows that linking them will be impossible. @xref{Options}. The usual behavior assumes that your purpose is to get the specified targets up to date; once @code{make} learns that this is impossible, it might as well report the failure immediately. The @samp{-k} option says that the real purpose is to test as much as possible of the changes made in the program, perhaps to find several independent problems so that you can correct them all before the next attempt to compile. This is why Emacs's @code{compile} command passes the @samp{-k} flag by default. @node Interrupts, Recursion, Errors, Commands @section Interrupting or Killing @code{make} @cindex interrupt @cindex signal @cindex deletion of target files If @code{make} gets a fatal signal while a command is executing, it may delete the target file that the command was supposed to update. This is done if the target file's last-modification time has changed since @code{make} first checked it. The purpose of deleting the target is to make sure that it is remade from scratch when @code{make} is next run. Why is this? Suppose you type @kbd{Ctrl-c} while a compiler is running, and it has begun to write an object file @file{foo.o}. The @kbd{Ctrl-c} kills the compiler, resulting in an incomplete file whose last-modification time is newer than the source file @file{foo.c}. But @code{make} also receives the @kbd{Ctrl-c} signal and deletes this incomplete file. If @code{make} did not do this, the next invocation of @code{make} would think that @file{foo.o} did not require updating---resulting in a strange error message from the linker when it tries to link an object file half of which is missing. @findex .PRECIOUS You can prevent the deletion of a target file in this way by making the special target @code{.PRECIOUS} depend on it. Before remaking a target, @code{make} checks to see whether it appears on the dependencies of @code{.PRECIOUS}, and thereby decides whether the target should be deleted if a signal happens. Some reasons why you might do this are that the target is updated in some atomic fashion, or exists only to record a modification-time (its contents do not matter), or must exist at all times to prevent other sorts of trouble. @node Recursion, Sequences, Interrupts, Commands @section Recursive Use of @code{make} @cindex recursion Recursive use of @code{make} means using @code{make} as a command in a makefile. This technique is useful when you want separate makefiles for various subsystems that compose a larger system. For example, suppose you have a subdirectory @file{subdir} which has its own makefile, and you would like the containing directory's makefile to run @code{make} on the subdirectory. You can do it by writing this: @example subsystem: cd subdir; $(MAKE) @end example @noindent or, equivalently, this (@pxref{Options}): @example subsystem: $(MAKE) -C subdir @end example You can write recursive @code{make} commands just by copying this example, but there are many things to know about how they work and why, and about how the sub-@code{make} relates to the top-level @code{make}. @menu * MAKE Variable:: Special effects of using @samp{$(MAKE)}. * Variables/Recursion:: How variables are communicated to a sub-@code{make}. * Options/Recursion:: How options are communicated to a sub-@code{make}. * -w Option:: The @samp{-w} option facilitates debugging makefiles with recursive @code{make} commands. @end menu @node MAKE Variable, Variables/Recursion, Recursion, Recursion @subsection How the @code{MAKE} Variable Works @vindex MAKE Recursive @code{make} commands should always use the variable @code{MAKE}, not the explicit command name @samp{make}, as shown here: @example subsystem: cd subdir; $(MAKE) @end example The value of this variable is the file name with which @code{make} was invoked. If this file name was @file{/bin/make}, then the command executed is @samp{cd subdir; /bin/make}. If you use a special version of @code{make} to run the top-level makefile, the same special version will be executed for recursive invocations. Also, any arguments that define variable values are added to @code{MAKE}, so the sub-@code{make} gets them too. Thus, if you do @samp{make CFLAGS=-O}, so that all C compilations will be optimized, the sub-@code{make} is run with @samp{cd subdir; /bin/make CFLAGS=-O}.@refill As a special feature, using the variable @code{MAKE} in the commands of a rule alters the effects of the @samp{-t}, @samp{-n} or @samp{-q} option. (@xref{Instead of Execution}.)@refill Consider the command @samp{make -t} in the above example. Following the usual definition of @samp{-t}, this would create a file named @file{subsystem} and do nothing else. What you really want it to do is run @samp{cd subdir; make -t}; but that would require executing the command, and @samp{-t} says not to execute commands.@refill The special feature makes this do what you want: whenever a rule's commands use the variable @code{MAKE}, the flags @samp{-t}, @samp{-n} or @samp{-q} do not apply to that rule. The commands of that rule are executed normally despite the presence of a flag that causes most commands not to be run. The usual @code{MAKEFLAGS} mechanism passes the flags to the sub-@code{make} (@pxref{Options/Recursion}), so your request to touch the files, or print the commands, is propagated to the subsystem.@refill @node Variables/Recursion, Options/Recursion, MAKE Variable, Recursion @subsection Communicating Variables to a Sub-@code{make} @cindex environment and recursion Most variable values of the top-level @code{make} are passed to the sub-@code{make} through the environment. These variables are defined in the sub-@code{make} as defaults, but do not override what is specified in the sub-@code{make}'s makefile. Variables are passed down if their names consist only of letters, numbers and underscores. Some shells cannot cope with environment variable names consisting of characters other than letters, numbers, and underscores. Variable are @emph{not} passed down if they were created by default by @code{make} (@pxref{Implicit Variables}). The sub-@code{make} will define these for itself.@refill The way this works is that @code{make} adds each variable and its value to the environment for running each command. The sub-@code{make}, in turn, uses the environment to initialize its table of variable values. @xref{Environment}. @vindex MAKELEVEL As a special feature, the variable @code{MAKELEVEL} is changed when it is passed down from level to level. This variable's value is a string which is the depth of the level as a decimal number. The value is @samp{0} for the top-level @code{make}; @samp{1} for a sub-@code{make}, @samp{2} for a sub-sub-@code{make}, and so on. The incrementation happens when @code{make} sets up the environment for a command.@refill The main use of @code{MAKELEVEL} is to test it in a conditional directive (@pxref{Conditionals}); this way you can write a makefile that behaves one way if run recursively and another way if run directly by you. @vindex MAKEFILES You can use the variable @code{MAKEFILES} to cause all sub-@code{make} commands to use additional makefiles. The value of @code{MAKEFILES} is a whitespace-separated list of filenames. This variable, if defined in the outer-level makefile, is passed down through the environment as usual; then it serves as a list of extra makefiles for the sub-@code{make} to read before the usual or specified ones. @xref{MAKEFILES Variable}. @node Options/Recursion, -w Option, Variables/Recursion, Recursion @subsection Communicating Options to a Sub-@code{make} @cindex options and recursion @vindex MAKEFLAGS Flags such as @samp{-s} and @samp{-k} are passed automatically to the sub-@code{make} through the variable @code{MAKEFLAGS}. This variable is set up automatically by @code{make} to contain the flag letters that @code{make} received. Thus, if you do @samp{make -ks} then @code{MAKEFLAGS} gets the value @samp{ks}.@refill As a consequence, every sub-@code{make} gets a value for @code{MAKEFLAGS} in its environment. In response, it takes the flags from that value and processes them as if they had been given as arguments. @xref{Options}. The options @samp{-C}, @samp{-f}, @samp{-I}, @samp{-o}, and @samp{-W} are not put into @code{MAKEFLAGS}; these options are not passed down.@refill The @samp{-j} (@pxref{Parallel}) option is a special case. If you set it to some numeric value, @samp{-j 1} is always put into @code{MAKEFLAGS} instead of the value you specified. This is because if the @samp{-j} option were passed down to sub-@code{make}s, you would get many more jobs running in parallel than you asked for. If you give @samp{-j} with no numeric argument, meaning to run as many jobs as possible in parallel, this is passed down, since multiple infinities are no more than one.@refill If you don't want to pass the other flags down, you must change the value of @code{MAKEFLAGS}, like this: @example MAKEFLAGS= subsystem: cd subdir; $(MAKE) @end example or like this: @example subsystem: cd subdir; $(MAKE) MAKEFLAGS= @end example @vindex MFLAGS A similar variable @code{MFLAGS} exists also, for historical compatibility. It has the same value as @code{MAKEFLAGS} except that a hyphen is added at the beginning if it is not empty. @code{MFLAGS} was traditionally used explicitly in the recursive @code{make} command, like this: @example subsystem: cd subdir; $(MAKE) $(MFLAGS) @end example @noindent but now @code{MAKEFLAGS} makes this usage redundant. @cindex setting options from the environment @cindex options, setting from the environment @cindex setting options in makefiles @cindex options, setting in makefiles The @code{MAKEFLAGS} and @code{MFLAGS} variables can also be useful if you want to have certain options, such as @samp{-k} (@pxref{Options}) set each time you run @code{make}. Just put @samp{MAKEFLAGS=k} or @samp{MFLAGS=-k} in your environment. These variables may also be set in makefiles, so a makefile can specify additional flags that should also be in effect for that makefile.@refill If you do put @code{MAKEFLAGS} or @code{MFLAGS} in your environment, you should be sure not to include any options that will drastically affect the actions of @code{make} and undermine the purpose of makefiles and of @code{make} itself. For instance, the @samp{-t}, @samp{-n}, and @samp{-q} options, if put in one of these variables, could have disastrous consequences and would certainly have at least surprising and probably annoying effects.@refill @node -w Option, , Options/Recursion, Recursion @subsection The @samp{-w} Option If you use several levels of recursive @code{make} invocations, the @samp{-w} option can make the output a lot easier to understand by showing each directory as @code{make} starts processing it and as @code{make} finishes processing it. For example, if @samp{make -w} is run in the directory @file{/u/gnu/make}, @code{make} will print a line of the form:@refill @example make: Entering directory `/u/gnu/make'. @end example @noindent before doing anything else, and a line of the form: @example make: Leaving directory `/u/gnu/make'. @end example @noindent when processing is completed. @node Sequences, Empty Commands, Recursion, Commands @section Defining Canned Command Sequences @cindex sequences of commands When the same sequence of commands is useful in making various targets, you can define it as a canned sequence with the @code{define} directive, and refer to the canned sequence from the rules for those targets. The canned sequence is actually a variable, so the name must not conflict with other variable names. Here is an example of defining a canned sequence of commands: @example define run-yacc yacc $(firstword $^) mv y.tab.c $@@ endef @end example @noindent Here @code{run-yacc} is the name of the variable being defined; @code{endef} marks the end of the definition; the lines in between are the commands. The @code{define} directive does not expand variable references and function calls in the canned sequence; the @samp{$} characters, parentheses, variable names, and so on, all become part of the value of the variable you are defining. @xref{Defining}, for a complete explanation of @code{define}. The first command in this example runs Yacc on the first dependency (of whichever rule uses the canned sequence). The output file from Yacc is always named @file{y.tab.c}. The second command moves the output to the rule's target file name. To use the canned sequence, substitute the variable into the commands of a rule. You can substitute it like any other variable (@pxref{Reference}). Because variables defined by @code{define} are recursively expanded variables, all the variable references you wrote inside the @code{define} are expanded now. For example: @example foo.c : foo.y $(run-yacc) @end example @noindent @samp{foo.y} will substituted for the variable @samp{$^} when it occurs in @code{run-yacc}'s value, and @samp{foo.c} for @samp{$@@}.@refill This is a realistic example, but this particular one is not needed in practice because @code{make} has an implicit rule to figure out these commands based on the file names involved. @xref{Implicit}. @node Empty Commands, , Sequences, Commands @section Defining Empty Commands @cindex empty commands It is sometimes useful to define commands which do nothing. This is done simply by giving a command that consists of nothing but whitespace. For example: @example target:; @end example @noindent defines an empty command string for @file{target}. You could also use a line beginning with a tab character to define an empty command string, but this would be confusing because such a line looks empty. You may be wondering why you would want to define a command string that does nothing. The only reason this is useful is to prevent a target from getting implicit commands (from implicit rules or the @code{.DEFAULT} special target; @pxref{Implicit} and @pxref{Last Resort}). You may be inclined to define empty command strings for targets that are not actual files, but only exist so that their dependencies can be remade. However, this is not the best way to do that, because if the target file actually does exist, its dependencies may not be remade. @xref{Phony Targets}, for a better way to do this. @node Variables, Conditionals, Commands, Top @chapter How to Use Variables @cindex variable @cindex value @cindex recursive variable expansion @cindex simple variable expansion A @dfn{variable} is a name defined within @code{make} to represent a string of text, called the variable's @dfn{value}. These values can be substituted by explicit request into targets, dependencies, commands and other parts of the makefile. Variables can represent lists of file names, options to pass to compilers, programs to run, directories to look in for source files, directories to write output in, or anything else you can imagine. A variable name may be any sequence characters not containing @samp{:}, @samp{#}, @samp{=}, or leading or trailing whitespace. However, variable names containing characters other than letters, numbers and underscores should be avoided, as they may be given special meanings in the future, and they are not passed through the environment to a sub-@code{make} (@pxref{Variables/Recursion}). It is traditional to use upper case letters in variable names, but we recommend using lower case letters for variable names that serve internal purposes in the makefile, and reserving upper case for parameters that control implicit rules or for parameters that the user should override with command options (@pxref{Overriding}). @menu * Reference:: How to use the value of a variable. * Flavors:: Variables come in two flavors. * Advanced:: Advanced features for referencing a variable. * Values:: All the ways variables get their values. * Setting:: How to set a variable in the makefile. * Override Directive:: Setting a variable in the makefile even if the user has set it with a command argument. * Defining:: An alternate way to set a variable to a verbatim string. * Environment:: Variable values can come from the environment. @end menu @node Reference, Flavors, Variables, Variables @section Basics of Variable References To substitute a variable's value, write a dollar sign followed by the name of the variable in parentheses or braces: either @samp{$(foo)} or @samp{$@{foo@}} is a valid reference to the variable @code{foo}. This special significance of @samp{$} is why you must write @samp{$$} to have the effect of a single dollar sign in a file name or command. Variable references can be used in any context: targets, dependencies, commands, most directives, and new variable values. Here is a common kind of example, where a variable holds the names of all the object files in a program: @example objects = program.o foo.o utils.o program : $(objects) cc -o program $(objects) $(objects) : defs.h @end example Variable references work by strict textual substitution. Thus, the rule @example foo = c prog.o : prog.c $(foo)$(foo) prog.c @end example @noindent could be used to compile a C program @file{prog.c}. Since spaces around the variable value are ignored in variable assignments, the value of @code{foo} is precisely @samp{c}. (Don't actually write your makefiles this way!) A dollar sign followed by a character other than a dollar sign, open-parenthesis or open-brace treats that single character as the variable name. Thus, you could reference the variable @code{x} with @samp{$x}. However, this practice is strongly discouraged, except in the case of the automatic variables (@pxref{Automatic}). @node Flavors, Advanced, Reference, Variables @section The Two Flavors of Variables @cindex flavors (of variables) @cindex recursive variable expansion There are two ways that a variables in GNU @code{make} can have a value; we call them two @dfn{flavors} of variables. The two flavors are distinguished in how they are defined and in what they do when expanded. The first flavor of variable is a @dfn{recursively expanded} variable. Variables of this sort are defined by lines using @samp{=} (@pxref{Setting}). The value you specify is installed verbatim; if it contains references to other variables, these references are expanded whenever this variable is substituted (in the course of expanding some other string). When this happens, it is called @dfn{recursive expansion}. For example, @example foo = $(bar) bar = $(ugh) ugh = Huh? all:;echo $(foo) @end example @noindent will echo @samp{Huh?}: @samp{$(foo)} expands to @samp{$(bar)} which expands to @samp{$(ugh)} which finally expands to @samp{Huh?}.@refill This flavor of variable is the only sort supported by other versions of @code{make}. It has its advantages and its disadvantages. An advantage (most would say) is that: @example CFLAGS = $(include_dirs) -O include_dirs = -Ifoo -Ibar @end example @noindent will do what was intended: when @samp{CFLAGS} is expanded in a command, it will expand to @samp{-Ifoo -Ibar -O}. A major disadvantage is that you can't append something on the end of a variable, as in @example CFLAGS = $(CFLAGS) -O @end example @noindent because it will cause an infinite loop in the variable expansion. (Actually @code{make} detects the infinite loop and reports an error.) Another disadvantage is that any functions (@pxref{Functions}) referenced in the definition will be executed every time the variable is expanded. This makes @code{make} run slower; worse, it causes the @code{wildcard} and @code{shell} functions to give unpredictable results because you cannot easily control when they are called, or even how many times. To avoid all the problems and inconveniences of recursively expanded variables, there is another flavor: @dfn{simply expanded} variables. Simply expanded variables are defined by lines using @samp{:=} (@pxref{Setting}). The value of a simply expanded variable is scanned once and for all, expanding any references to other variables and functions, when the variable is defined. The actual value of the simply expanded variable is the result of expanding the text that you write. It does not contain any references to other variables; it contains their values @emph{as of the time this variable was defined}. Therefore, @example x := foo y := $(x) bar x := later @end example @noindent is equivalent to @example y := foo bar x := later @end example When a simply expanded variable is referenced, its value is substituted verbatim. Simply expanded variables generally make complicated makefile programming more predictable because they work like variables in most programming languages. They allow you to redefine a variable using its own value (or its value processed in some way by one of the expansion functions) and to use the expansion functions much more efficiently (@pxref{Functions}). You can also use them to introduce controlled leading or trailing spaces into variable values. Such spaces are discarded from your input before substitution of variable references and function calls; this means you can include leading or trailing spaces in a variable value by protecting them with variable references, like this: @example nullstring := space := $(nullstring) $(nullstring) @end example @noindent Here the value of the variable @code{space} is precisely one space. @node Advanced, Values, Flavors, Variables @section Advanced Features for Reference to Variables @cindex reference to variables This section describes some advanced features you can use to reference variables in more flexible ways. @menu * Substitution Refs:: Referencing a variable with substitutions on the value. * Computed Names:: Computing the name of the variable to refer to. @end menu @node Substitution Refs, Computed Names, Advanced, Advanced @subsection Substitution References @cindex modified variable reference @cindex substitution variable reference A @dfn{substitution reference} substitutes the value of a variable with alterations that you specify. It has the form @samp{$(@var{var}:@var{a}=@var{b})} (or @samp{$@{@var{var}:@var{a}=@var{b}@}}) and its meaning is to take the value of the variable @var{var}, replace every @var{a} at the end of a word with @var{b} in that value, and substitute the resulting string. When we say ``at the end of a word'', we mean that @var{a} must appear either followed by whitespace or at the end of the value in order to be replaced; other occurrences of @var{a} in the value are unaltered. For example:@refill @example foo := a.o b.o c.o bar := $(foo:.o=.c) @end example @noindent sets @samp{bar} to @samp{a.c b.c c.c}. @xref{Setting}. A substitution reference is actually an abbreviation for use of the @code{patsubst} expansion function (@pxref{Text Functions}). We provide substitution references as well as @code{patsubst} for compatibility with other implementations of @code{make}. Another type of substitution reference lets you use the full power of the @code{patsubst} function. It has the same form @samp{$(@var{var}:@var{a}=@var{b})} described above, except that now @var{a} must contain a single @samp{%} character. This case is equivalent to @samp{$(patsubst @var{a},@var{b},$(@var{var}))}. @xref{Text Functions}, for a description of the @code{patsubst} function. For example:@refill @example foo := a.o b.o c.o bar := $(foo:%.o=%.c) @end example @noindent sets @samp{bar} to @samp{a.c b.c c.c}. @node Computed Names, , Substitution Refs, Advanced @subsection Computed Variable Names @cindex nested variable reference @cindex computed variable name @cindex variable reference, nested Computed variable names are a complicated concept needed only for sophisticated makefile programming. For most purposes you need not consider about them, except to know that making a variable with a dollar sign in its name might have strange results. However, if you are the type that wants to understand everything, or you are actually interested in what they do, read on. Variables may be referenced inside the name of a variable. This is called a @dfn{computed variable name} or a @dfn{nested variable reference}. For example, @example x = y y = z a := $($(x)) @end example @noindent defines @code{a} as @samp{z}: the @samp{$(x)} inside @samp{$($(x))} expands to @samp{y}, so @samp{$($(x))} expands to @samp{$(y)} which in turn expands to @samp{z}. Here the name of the variable to reference is not stated explicitly; it is computed by expansion of @samp{$(x)}. The reference @samp{$(x)} here is nested within the outer variable reference. The previous example shows two levels of nesting, but any number of levels is possible. For example, here are three levels: @example x = y y = z z = u a := $($($(x))) @end example @noindent Here the innermost @samp{$(x)} expands to @samp{y}, so @samp{$($(x))} expands to @samp{$(y)} which in turn expands to @samp{z}; now we have @samp{$(z)}, which becomes @samp{u}. References to recursively-expanded variables within a variable name are reexpanded in the usual fashion. For example: @example x = $(y) y = z z = Hello a := $($(x)) @end example @noindent defines @code{a} as @samp{Hello}: @samp{$($(x))} becomes @samp{$($(y))} which becomes @samp{$(z)} which becomes @samp{Hello}. Nested variable references can also contain modified references and function invocations (@pxref{Functions}), just like any other reference. For example, using the @code{subst} function (@pxref{Text Functions}): @example x = variable1 variable2 := Hello y = $(subst 1,2,$(x)) z = y a := $($($(z))) @end example @noindent eventually defines @code{a} as @samp{Hello}. It is doubtful that anyone would ever want to write a nested reference as convoluted as this one, but it works: @samp{$($($(z)))} expands to @samp{$($(y))} which becomes @samp{$($(subst 1,2,$(x)))}. This gets the value @samp{variable1} from @code{x} and changes it by substitution to @samp{variable2}, so that the entire string becomes @samp{$(variable2)}, a simple variable reference whose value is @samp{Hello}.@refill A computed variable name need not consist entirely of a single variable reference. It can contain several variable references, as well as some invariant text. For example, @example a_dirs := dira dirb 1_dirs := dir1 dir2 a_files := filea fileb 1_files := file1 file2 ifeq "$(use_a)" "yes" a1 := a else a1 := 1 endif ifeq "$(use_dirs)" "yes" df := dirs else df := files endif dirs := $($(a1)_$(df)) @end example @noindent will give @code{dirs} the same value as @code{a_dirs}, @code{1_dirs}, @code{a_files} or @code{1_files} depending on the settings of @code{use_a} and @code{use_dirs}.@refill Computed variable names can also be used in substitution references: @example a_objects := a.o b.o c.o 1_objects := 1.o 2.o 3.o sources := $($(a1)_object:.o=.c) @end example @noindent defines @code{sources} as either @samp{a.c b.c c.c} or @samp{1.c 2.c 3.c}, depending on the value of @code{a1}. The only restriction on this sort of use of nested variable references is that they cannot specify part of the name of a function to be called. This is because the test for a recognized function name is done before the expansion of nested references. For example, @example ifdef do_sort func := sort else func := strip endif bar := a d b g q c foo := $($(func) $(bar)) @end example @noindent attempts to give @samp{foo} the value of the variable @samp{sort a d b g q c} or @samp{strip a d b g q c}, rather than giving @samp{a d b g q c} as the argument to either the @code{sort} or the @code{strip} function. This restriction could be removed in the future if that change is shown to be a good idea. Note that @dfn{nested variable references} are quite different from @dfn{recursively expanded variables} (@pxref{Flavors}), though both are used together in complex ways when doing makefile programming.@refill @node Values, Setting, Advanced, Variables @section How Variables Get Their Values Variables can get values in several different ways: @itemize @bullet @item You can specify an overriding value when you run @code{make}. @xref{Overriding}. @item You can specify a value in the makefile, either with an assignment (@pxref{Setting}) or with a verbatim definition (@pxref{Defining}).@refill @item Values are inherited from the environment. @xref{Environment}. @item Several @dfn{automatic} variables are given new values for each rule. Each of these has a single conventional use. @xref{Automatic}. @item Several variables have constant initial values. @xref{Implicit Variables}. @end itemize @node Setting, Override Directive, Values, Variables @section Setting Variables @cindex setting variables @cindex = @cindex := To set a variable from the makefile, write a line starting with the variable name followed by @samp{=} or @samp{:=}. Whatever follows the @samp{=} or @samp{:=} on the line becomes the value. For example, @example objects = main.o foo.o bar.o utils.o @end example @noindent defines a variable named @code{objects}. Whitespace around the variable name and immediately after the @samp{=} is ignored. Variables defined with @samp{=} are @dfn{recursively expanded} variables. Variables defined with @samp{:=} are @dfn{simply expanded} variables; these definitions can contain variable references which will be expanded before the definition is made. @xref{Flavors}. There is no limit on the length of the value of a variable except the amount of swapping space on the computer. When a variable definition is long, it is a good idea to break it into several lines by inserting backslash-newline at convenient places in the definition. This will not affect the functioning of @code{make}, but it will make the makefile easier to read. Most variable names are considered to have the empty string as a value if you have never set them. Several variables have built-in initial values that are not empty, but can be set by you in the usual ways (@pxref{Implicit Variables}). Several special variables are set automatically to a new value for each rule; these are called the @dfn{automatic} variables (@pxref{Automatic}). @node Override Directive, Defining, Setting, Variables @section The @code{override} Directive @findex override @cindex overriding with @code{override} If a variable has been set with a command argument (@pxref{Overriding}), then ordinary assignments in the makefile are ignored. If you want to set the variable in the makefile even though it was set with a command argument, you can use an @code{override} directive, which is a line that looks like this:@refill @example override @var{variable} = @var{value} @end example or @example override @var{variable} := @var{value} @end example The @code{override} directive was not invented for escalation in the war between makefiles and command arguments. It was invented so you can alter and add to values that the user specifies with command arguments. For example, suppose you always want the @samp{-g} switch when you run the C compiler, but you would like to allow the user to specify the other switches with a command argument just as usual. You could use this @code{override} directive: @example override CFLAGS := $(CFLAGS) -g @end example You can also use @code{override} directives with @code{define} directives. This is done as you might expect: @example override define foo bar endef @end example @noindent @iftex See the next section. @end iftex @ifinfo @xref{Defining}. @end ifinfo @node Defining, Environment, Override Directive, Variables @section Defining Variables Verbatim @findex define @findex endef Another way to set the value of a variable is to use the @code{define} directive. This directive has a different syntax which allows newline characters to be included in the value, which is convenient for defining canned sequences of commands (@pxref{Sequences}). The @code{define} directive is followed on the same line by the name of the variable and nothing more. The value to give the variable appears on the following lines. The end of the value is marked by a line containing just the word @code{endef}. Aside from this difference in syntax, @code{define} works just like @samp{=}; it creates a recursively-expanded variable (@pxref{Flavors}). @example define two-lines echo foo echo $(bar) endef @end example The value in an ordinary assignment cannot contain a newline; but the newlines that separate the lines of the value in a @code{define} become part of the variable's value (except for the final newline which precedes the @code{endef} and is not considered part of the value).@refill The previous example is functionally equivalent to this: @example two-lines = echo foo; echo $(bar) @end example @noindent since the shell will interpret the semicolon and the newline identically. If you want variable definitions made with @code{define} to take precedence over command-line variable definitions, the @code{override} directive can be used together with @code{define}: @example override define two-lines foo $(bar) endef @end example @noindent @xref{Override Directive}. @node Environment, , Defining, Variables @section Variables from the Environment @cindex environment Variables in @code{make} can come from the environment with which @code{make} is run. Every environment variable that @code{make} sees when it starts up is transformed into a @code{make} variable with the same name and value. But an explicit assignment in the makefile, or with a command argument, overrides the environment. (If the @samp{-e} flag is specified, then values from the environment override assignments in the makefile. @xref{Options}. But this is not recommended practice.) Thus, by setting the variable @code{CFLAGS} in your environment, you can cause all C compilations in most makefiles to use the compiler switches you prefer. This is safe for variables with standard or conventional meanings because you know that no makefile will use them for other things. (But this is not totally reliable; some makefiles set @code{CFLAGS} explicitly and therefore are not affected by the value in the environment.) When @code{make} is invoked recursively, variables defined in the outer invocation are automatically passed to inner invocations through the environment (@pxref{Recursion}). This is the main purpose of turning environment variables into @code{make} variables, and it requires no attention from you.@refill Other use of variables from the environment is not recommended. It is not wise for makefiles to depend for their functioning on environment variables set up outside their control, since this would cause different users to get different results from the same makefile. This is against the whole purpose of most makefiles. Such problems would be especially likely with the variable @code{SHELL}, which is normally present in the environment to specify the user's choice of interactive shell. It would be very undesirable for this choice to affect @code{make}. So @code{make} ignores the environment value of @code{SHELL} if the value of @code{MAKELEVEL} is zero (which is normally true except in recursive invocations of @code{make}).@refill @node Conditionals, Functions, Variables, Top @chapter Conditional Parts of Makefiles @cindex conditionals A @dfn{conditional} causes part of a makefile to be obeyed or ignored depending on the values of variables. Conditionals can compare the value of one variable with another, or the value of a variable with a constant string. Conditionals control what @code{make} actually ``sees'' in the makefile, so they @emph{cannot} be used to control shell commands at the time of execution.@refill @menu * Example: Conditional Example. An annotated example. * Syntax: Conditional Syntax. Precise rules for syntax of conditionals. * Flags: Testing Flags. Conditionals testing flags such as @samp{-t}. @end menu @node Conditional Example, Conditional Syntax, Conditionals, Conditionals @section Example of a Conditional This conditional tells @code{make} to use one set of libraries if the @code{CC} variable is @samp{gcc}, and a different set of libraries otherwise. It works by controlling which of two command lines will be used as the command for a rule. The result is that @samp{CC=gcc} as an argument to @code{make} changes not only which compiler is used but also which libraries are linked. @example libs_for_gcc = -lgnu normal_libs = foo: $(objects) ifeq ($(CC),gcc) $(CC) -o foo $(objects) $(libs_for_gcc) else $(CC) -o foo $(objects) $(normal_libs) endif @end example This conditional uses three directives: one @code{ifeq}, one @code{else} and one @code{endif}. The @code{ifeq} directive begins the conditional, and specifies the condition. It contains two arguments, separated by a comma and surrounded by parentheses. Variable substitution is performed on both arguments and then they are compared. The lines of the makefile following the @code{ifeq} are obeyed if the two arguments match; otherwise they are ignored. The @code{else} directive causes the following lines to be obeyed if the previous conditional failed. In the example above, this means that the second alternative linking command is used whenever the first alternative is not used. It is optional to have an @code{else} in a conditional. The @code{endif} directive ends the conditional. Every conditional must end with an @code{endif}. Unconditional makefile text follows. Conditionals work at the textual level: the lines of the conditional are treated as part of the makefile, or ignored, according to the condition. This is why the larger syntactic units of the makefile, such as rules, may cross the beginning or the end of the conditional. When the variable @code{CC} has the value @samp{gcc}, the above example has this effect: @example foo: $(objects) $(CC) -o foo $(objects) $(libs_for_gcc) @end example @noindent When the variable @code{CC} has any other value, the effect is this: @example foo: $(objects) $(CC) -o foo $(objects) $(normal_libs) @end example Equivalent results can be obtained in another way by conditionalizing a variable assignment and then using the variable unconditionally: @example libs_for_gcc = -lgnu normal_libs = ifeq ($(CC),gcc) libs=$(libs_for_gcc) else libs=$(normal_libs) endif foo: $(objects) $(CC) -o foo $(objects) $(libs) @end example @node Conditional Syntax, Testing Flags, Conditional Example, Conditionals @section Syntax of Conditionals @findex ifdef @findex ifeq @findex ifndef @findex ifneq @findex else @findex endif The syntax of a simple conditional with no @code{else} is as follows: @example @var{conditional-directive} @var{text-if-true} endif @end example @noindent The @var{text-if-true} may be any lines of text, to be considered as part of the makefile if the condition is true. If the condition is false, no text is used instead. The syntax of a complex conditional is as follows: @example @var{conditional-directive} @var{text-if-true} else @var{text-if-false} endif @end example @noindent If the condition is true, @var{text-if-true} is used; otherwise, @var{text-if-false} is used instead. The @var{text-if-false} can be any number of lines of text. The syntax of the @var{conditional-directive} is the same whether the conditional is simple or complex. There are four different directives that test different conditions. Here is a table of them: @table @code @item ifeq (@var{arg1}, @var{arg2}) @itemx ifeq '@var{arg1}' '@var{arg2}' @itemx ifeq "@var{arg1}" "@var{arg2}" @itemx ifeq "@var{arg1}" '@var{arg2}' @itemx ifeq '@var{arg1}' "@var{arg2}" Expand all variable references in @var{arg1} and @var{arg2} and compare them. If they are identical, the @var{text-if-true} is effective; otherwise, the @var{text-if-false}, if any, is effective. @item ifneq (@var{arg1}, @var{arg2}) @itemx ifneq '@var{arg1}' '@var{arg2}' @itemx ifneq "@var{arg1}" "@var{arg2}" @itemx ifneq "@var{arg1}" '@var{arg2}' @itemx ifneq '@var{arg1}' "@var{arg2}" Expand all variable references in @var{arg1} and @var{arg2} and compare them. If they are different, the @var{text-if-true} is effective; otherwise, the @var{text-if-false}, if any, is effective. @item ifdef @var{variable-name} If the variable @var{variable-name} has a non-empty value, the @var{text-if-true} is effective; otherwise, the @var{text-if-false}, if any, is effective. Variables that have never been defined have an empty value. @item ifndef @var{variable-name} If the variable @var{variable-name} has an empty value, the @var{text-if-true} is effective; otherwise, the @var{text-if-false}, if any, is effective. @end table Extra spaces are allowed and ignored at the beginning of the conditional directive line, but a tab is not allowed. (If the line begins with a tab, it will be considered a command for a rule.) Aside from this, extra spaces or tabs may be inserted with no effect anywhere except within the directive name or within an argument. A comment starting with @samp{#} may appear at the end of the line. The other two directives that play a part in a conditional are @code{else} and @code{endif}. Each of these directives is written as one word, with no arguments. Extra spaces are allowed and ignored at the beginning of the line, and spaces or tabs at the end. A comment starting with @samp{#} may appear at the end of the line. Conditionals work at the textual level. The lines of the @var{text-if-true} are read as part of the makefile if the condition is true; if the condition is false, those lines are ignored completely. It follows that syntactic units of the makefile, such as rules, may safely be split across the beginning or the end of the conditional.@refill To prevent intolerable confusion, it is not permitted to start a conditional in one makefile and end it in another. However, you may write an @code{include} directive within a conditional, provided you do not attempt to terminate the conditional inside the included file. @node Testing Flags, , Conditional Syntax, Conditionals @section Conditionals that Test Flags You can write a conditional that tests @code{make} command flags such as @samp{-t} by using the variable @code{MAKEFLAGS} together with the @code{findstring} function. This is useful when @code{touch} is not enough to make a file appear up to date. The @code{findstring} function determines whether one string appears as a substring of another. If you want to test for the @samp{-t} flag, use @samp{t} as the first string and the value of @code{MAKEFLAGS} as the other. For example, here is how to arrange to use @samp{ranlib -t} to finish marking an archive file up to date: @example archive.a: @dots{} ifneq (,$(findstring t,$(MAKEFLAGS))) @@echo $(MAKE) > /dev/null touch archive.a ranlib -t archive.a else ranlib archive.a endif @end example @noindent The @code{echo} command does nothing when executed; but its presence, with a reference to the variable @code{MAKE}, marks the rule as ``recursive'' so that its commands will be executed despite use of the @samp{-t} flag. @xref{Recursion}. @node Functions, Running, Conditionals, Top @chapter Functions for Transforming Text @cindex function @dfn{Functions} allow you to do text processing in the makefile to compute the files to operate on or the commands to use. You use a function in a @dfn{function call}, where you give the name of the function and some text (the @dfn{arguments}) for the function to operate on. The result of the function's processing is substituted into the makefile at the point of the call, just as a variable might be substituted. @menu * Syntax of Functions:: How to write a function call. * Text Functions:: General-purpose text manipulation functions. * Filename Functions:: Functions for manipulating file names. * Foreach Function:: Repeat some text with controlled variation. * Origin Function:: Find where a variable got its value. * Shell Function:: Substitute the output of a shell command. @end menu @node Syntax of Functions, Text Functions, Functions, Functions @section Function Call Syntax @cindex $ (function call) @cindex arguments A function call resembles a variable reference. It looks like this: @example $(@var{function} @var{arguments}) @end example @noindent or like this: @example $@{@var{function} @var{arguments}@} @end example Here @var{function} is a function name; one of a short list of names that are part of @code{make}. There is no provision for defining new functions. The @var{arguments} are the arguments of the function. They are separated from the function name by one or more spaces and/or tabs, and if there is more than one argument they are separated by commas. Such whitespace and commas are not part of any argument's value. The delimiters which you use to surround the function call, whether parentheses or braces, can appear in an argument only in matching pairs; the other kind of delimiters may appear singly. If the arguments themselves contain other function calls or variable references, it is wisest to use the same kind of delimiters for all the references; in other words, write @w{@samp{$(subst a,b,$(x))}}, not @w{@samp{$(subst a,b,$@{x@})}}. This is both because it is clearer, and because only one type of delimiters is matched to find the end of the reference. Thus in @w{@samp{$(subst a,b,$@{subst c,d,$@{x@}@})}} doesn't work because the second @code{subst} function invocation ends at the first @samp{@}}, not the second. The text written for each argument is processed by substitution of variables and function calls to produce the argument value, which is the text on which the function acts. The substitution is done in the order in which the arguments appear. Commas and unmatched parentheses or braces cannot appear in the text of an argument as written; leading spaces cannot appear in the text of the first argument as written. These characters can be put into the argument value by variable substitution. First define variables @code{comma} and @code{space} whose values are isolated comma and space characters, then substitute those variables where such characters are wanted, like this: @example comma:= , space:= $(empty) $(empty) foo:= a b c bar:= $(subst $(space),$(comma),$(foo)) # @r{bar is now `a,b,c'.} @end example @noindent Here the @code{subst} function replaces each space with a comma, through the value of @code{foo}, and substitutes the result. @node Text Functions, Filename Functions, Syntax of Functions, Functions @section Functions for String Substitution and Analysis Here are some functions that operate on strings: @table @code @item $(subst @var{from},@var{to},@var{text}) @findex subst Performs a textual replacement on the text @var{text}: each occurrence of @var{from} is replaced by @var{to}. The result is substituted for the function call. For example, @example $(subst ee,EE,feet on the street) @end example substitutes the string @samp{fEEt on the strEEt}. @item $(patsubst @var{pattern},@var{replacement},@var{text}) @findex patsubst Finds whitespace-separated words in @var{text} that match @var{pattern} and replaces them with @var{replacement}. Here @var{pattern} may contain a @samp{%} which acts as a wildcard, matching any number of any characters within a word. If @var{replacement} also contains a @samp{%}, the @samp{%} is replaced by the text that matched the @samp{%} in @var{pattern}.@refill @samp{%} characters in @code{patsubst} function invocations can be quoted with preceding backslashes (@samp{\}). Backslashes that would otherwise quote @samp{%} characters can be quoted with more backslashes. Backslashes that quote @samp{%} characters or other backslashes are removed from the pattern before it is compared file names or has a stem substituted into it. Backslashes that are not in danger of quoting @samp{%} characters go unmolested. For example, the pattern @file{the\%weird\\%pattern\\} has @samp{the%weird\} preceding the operative @samp{%} character, and @samp{pattern\\} following it. The final two backslashes are left alone because they can't affect any @samp{%} character.@refill Whitespace between words is folded into single space characters; leading and trailing whitespace is discarded. For example, @example $(patsubst %.c,%.o,x.c.c bar.c) @end example @noindent produces the value @samp{x.c.o bar.o}. @item $(strip @var{string}) @findex strip Removes leading and trailing whitespace from @var{string} and replaces each internal sequence of one or more whitespace characters with a single space. Thus, @samp{$(strip a b c )} results in @samp{a b c}. @item $(findstring @var{find},@var{in}) @findex findstring Searches @var{in} for an occurrence of @var{find}. If it occurs, the value is @var{find}; otherwise, the value is empty. You can use this function in a conditional to test for the presence of a specific substring in a given string. Thus, the two examples, @example $(findstring a,a b c) $(findstring a,b c) @end example @noindent produce the values @samp{a} and @samp{}, respectively. @xref{Testing Flags}, for a practical application of @code{findstring}.@refill @item $(filter @var{pattern},@var{text}) @findex filter Removes all whitespace-separated words in @var{text} that do @emph{not} match @var{pattern}, returning only matching words. The pattern is written using @samp{%}, just like the patterns used in @code{patsubst} function above.@refill The @code{filter} function can be used to separate out different types of strings (such as filenames) in a variable. For example: @example sources := foo.c bar.c ugh.h foo: $(sources) cc $(filter %.c,$(sources)) -o foo @end example @noindent says that @file{foo} depends of @file{foo.c}, @file{bar.c} and @file{ugh.h} but only @file{foo.c} and @file{bar.c} should be specified in the command to the compiler.@refill @item $(filter-out @var{pattern},@var{text}) @findex filter-out Removes all whitespace-separated words in @var{text} that @emph{do} match @var{pattern}, returning only the words that match. This is the exact opposite of the @code{filter} function.@refill @item $(sort @var{list}) @findex sort Sorts the words of @var{list} in lexical order, removing duplicate words. The output is a list of words separated by single spaces. Thus, @example $(sort foo bar lose) @end example @noindent returns the value @samp{bar foo lose}. @end table Here is a realistic example of the use of @code{subst} and @code{patsubst}. Suppose that a makefile uses the @code{VPATH} variable to specify a list of directories that @code{make} should search for dependency files. This example shows how to tell the C compiler to search for header files in the same list of directories. The value of @code{VPATH} is a list of directories separated by colons, such as @samp{src:../headers}. First, the @code{subst} function is used to change the colons to spaces: @example $(subst :, ,$(VPATH)) @end example @noindent This produces @samp{src ../headers}. Then @code{patsubst} is used to turn each directory name into a @samp{-I} flag. These can be added to the value of the variable @code{CFLAGS}, which is passed automatically to the C compiler, like this: @example override CFLAGS:= $(CFLAGS) $(patsubst %,-I%,$(subst :, ,$(VPATH))) @end example @noindent The effect is to append the text @samp{-Isrc -I../headers} to the previously given value of @code{CFLAGS}. The @code{override} directive is used so that the new value is assigned even if the previous value of @code{CFLAGS} was specified with a command argument (@pxref{Override Directive}). The function @code{strip} can be very useful when used in conjunction with conditionals. When comparing something with the null string @samp{""} using @code{ifeq} or @code{ifneq}, you usually want a string of just whitespace to match the null string. Thus, @example .PHONY: all ifneq "$(needs_made)" "" all: $(needs_made) else all:;@@echo 'Nothing to make!' endif @end example @noindent might fail to have the desired results. Replacing the variable reference @samp{"$(needs_made)"} with the function call @samp{"$(strip $(needs_made))"} in the @code{ifneq} directive would make it more robust. @node Filename Functions, Foreach Function, Text Functions, Functions @section Functions for File Names Several of the built-in expansion functions relate specifically to taking apart file names or lists of file names. Each of the following functions performs a specific transformation on a file name. The argument of the function is regarded as a series of file names, separated by whitespace. (Leading and trailing whitespace is ignored.) Each file name in the series is transformed in the same way and the results are concatenated with single spaces between them. @table @code @item $(dir @var{names}) @findex dir Extracts the directory-part of each file name in @var{names}. The directory-part of the file name is everything up through (and including) the last slash in it. If the file name contains no slash, the directory part is the string @samp{./}. For example, @example $(dir src/foo.c hacks) @end example @noindent produces the result @samp{src/ ./}. @item $(notdir @var{names}) @findex notdir Extracts all but the directory-part of each file name in @var{names}. If the file name contains no slash, it is left unchanged. Otherwise, everything through the last slash is removed from it. A file name that ends with a slash becomes an empty string. This is unfortunate, because it means that the result does not always have the same number of whitespace-separated file names as the argument had; but we do not see any other valid alternative. For example, @example $(notdir src/foo.c hacks) @end example @noindent produces the result @samp{foo.c hacks}. @item $(suffix @var{names}) @findex suffix Extracts the suffix of each file name in @var{names}. If the file name contains a period, the suffix is everything starting with the last period. Otherwise, the suffix is the empty string. This frequently means that the result will be empty when @var{names} is not, and if @var{names} contains multiple file names, the result may contain fewer file names. For example, @example $(suffix src/foo.c hacks) @end example @noindent produces the result @samp{.c}. @item $(basename @var{names}) @findex basename Extracts all but the suffix of each file name in @var{names}. If the file name contains a period, the basename is everything starting up to (and not including) the last period. Otherwise, the basename is the entire file name. For example, @example $(basename src/foo.c hacks) @end example @noindent produces the result @samp{src/foo hacks}. @item $(addsuffix @var{suffix},@var{names}) @findex addsuffix The argument @var{names} is regarded as a series of names, separated by whitespace; @var{suffix} is used as a unit. The value of @var{suffix} is appended to the end of each individual name and the resulting larger names are concatenated with single spaces between them. For example, @example $(addsuffix .c,foo bar) @end example @noindent produces the result @samp{foo.c bar.c}. @item $(addprefix @var{prefix},@var{names}) @findex addprefix The argument @var{names} is regarded as a series of names, separated by whitespace; @var{prefix} is used as a unit. The value of @var{prefix} is appended to the front of each individual name and the resulting larger names are concatenated with single spaces between them. For example, @example $(addprefix src/,foo bar) @end example @noindent produces the result @samp{src/foo src/bar}. @item $(join @var{list1},@var{list2}) @findex join Concatenates the two arguments word by word: the two first words (one from each argument) concatenated form the first word of the result, the two second words form the second word of the result, and so on. So the @var{n}th word of the result comes from the @var{n}th word of each argument. If one argument has more words that the other, the extra words are copied unchanged into the result. For example, @samp{$(join a b,.c .o)} produces @samp{a.c b.o}. Whitespace between the words in the lists is not preserved; it is replaced with a single space. This function can merge the results of the @code{dir} and @code{notdir} functions, to produce the original list of files which was given to those two functions.@refill @item $(word @var{n},@var{text}) @findex word Returns the @var{n}th word of @var{text}. The legitimate values of @var{n} start from 1. If @var{n} is bigger than the number of words in @var{text}, the value is empty. For example, @example $(word 2, foo bar baz) @end example @noindent returns @samp{bar}. @item $(words @var{text}) @findex words Returns the number of words in @var{text}. Thus, @code{$(word $(words @var{text}),@var{text})} is the last word of @var{text}.@refill @item $(firstword @var{names}) @findex firstword The argument @var{names} is regarded as a series of names, separated by whitespace. The value is the first name in the series. The rest of the names are ignored. For example, @example $(firstword foo bar) @end example @noindent produces the result @samp{foo}. Although @code{$(firstword @var{text})} is the same as @code{$(word 1,@var{text})}, the @code{firstword} function is retained for its simplicity.@refill @item $(wildcard @var{pattern}) @findex wildcard The argument @var{pattern} is a file name pattern, typically containing wildcard characters. The result of @code{wildcard} is a space-separated list of the names of existing files that match the pattern. Wildcards are expanded automatically in rules. @xref{Wildcards}. But they are not normally expanded when a variable is set, or inside the arguments of other functions. Those occasions are when the @code{wildcard} function is useful.@refill @end table @node Foreach Function, Origin Function, Filename Functions, Functions @section The @code{foreach} Function @findex foreach The @code{foreach} function is very different from other functions. It causes one piece of text to be used repeatedly, each time with a different substitution performed on it. It resembles the @code{for} command in the shell @code{sh} and the @code{foreach} command in the C-shell @code{csh}. The syntax of the @code{foreach} function is: @example $(foreach @var{var},@var{list},@var{text}) @end example @noindent The first two arguments, @var{var} and @var{list}, are expanded before anything else is done; note that the last argument, @var{text}, is @emph{not} expanded at the same time. Then for each word of the expanded value of @var{list}, the variable named by the expanded value of @var{var} is set to that word, and @var{text} is expanded. Presumably @var{text} contains references to that variable, so its expansion will be different each time. The result is that @var{text} is expanded as many times as there are whitespace-separated words in @var{list}. The multiple expansions of @var{text} are concatenated, with spaces between them, to make the result of @code{foreach}. This simple example sets the variable @samp{files} to the list of all files in the directories in the list @samp{dirs}: @example dirs := a b c d files := $(foreach dir,$(dirs),$(wildcard $(dir)/*)) @end example Here @var{text} is @samp{$(wildcard $(dir)/*)}. The first repetition finds the value @samp{a} for @code{dir}, so it produces the same result as @samp{$(wildcard a/*)}; the second repetition produces the result of @samp{$(wildcard b/*)}; and the third, that of @samp{$(wildcard c/*)}. This example has the same result (except for setting @samp{find_files}, @samp{dirs} and @samp{dir}) as the following example: @example files := $(wildcard a/* b/* c/* d/*) @end example When @var{text} is complicated, you can improve readability by giving it a name, with an additional variable: @example find_files = $(wildcard $(dir)/*) dirs := a b c d files := $(foreach dir,$(dirs),$(find_files)) @end example @noindent Here we use the variable @code{find_files} this way. We use plain @samp{=} to define a recursively-expanding variable, so that its value contains an actual function call to be reexpanded under the control of @code{foreach}; a simply-expanded variable would not do, since @code{wildcard} would be called only once at the time of defining @code{find_files}. The @code{foreach} function has no permanent effect on the variable @var{var}; its value and flavor after the @code{foreach} function call are the same as they were beforehand. The other values which are taken from @var{list} are in effect only temporarily, during the execution of @code{foreach}. The variable @var{var} is a simply-expanded variable during the execution of @code{foreach}. If @var{var} was undefined before the @code{foreach} function call, it is undefined after the call. @xref{Flavors}.@refill You must take care when using complex variable expressions that result in variable names because many strange things are valid variable names, but are probably not what you intended. For example, @example files := $(foreach Es escrito en espanol!,b c ch,$(find_files)) @end example @noindent might be useful if the value of @code{find_files} references the variable whose name is @samp{Es escrito en espanol!} (es un nombre bastante largo, que no?), but it is more likely to be a mistake. @node Origin Function, Shell Function, Foreach Function, Functions @section The @code{origin} Function @findex origin The @code{origin} function is unlike most other functions in that it does not operate on the values of variables; it tells you something @emph{about} a variable. Specifically, it tells you where it came from. The syntax of the @code{origin} function is: @example $(origin @var{variable}) @end example Note that @var{variable} is the @emph{name} of a variable to inquire about; not a @emph{reference} to that variable. Therefore you would not normally use a @samp{$} or parentheses when writing it. (You can, however, use a variable reference in the name if you want the name not to be a constant.) The result of this function is a string telling you how the variable @var{variable} was defined: @table @samp @item undefined if @var{variable} was never defined. @item default if @var{variable} has a default definition, as is usual with @code{CC} and so on. @xref{Implicit Variables}. Note that if you have redefined a default variable, the @code{origin} function will return the origin of the later definition. @item environment if @var{variable} was defined as an environment variable and the @samp{-e} option is @emph{not} turned on (@pxref{Options}). @item environment override if @var{variable} was defined as an environment variable and the @samp{-e} option @emph{is} turned on (@pxref{Options}). @item file if @var{variable} was defined in a makefile. @item command line if @var{variable} was defined on the command line. @item override if @var{variable} was defined with an @code{override} directive in a makefile (@pxref{Override Directive}). @item automatic if @var{variable} is an automatic variable defined for the execution of the commands for each rule. @end table This information is primarily useful (other than for your curiosity) to determine if you want to believe the value of a variable. For example, suppose you have a makefile @file{foo} that includes another makefile @file{bar}. You want a variable @code{bletch} to be defined in @file{bar} if you run the command @samp{make -f bar}, even if the environment contains a definition of @code{bletch}. However, if @file{foo} defined @code{bletch} before including @file{bar}, you don't want to override that definition. This could be done by using an @code{override} directive in @file{foo}, giving that definition precedence over the later definition in @file{bar}; unfortunately, the @code{override} directive would also override any command line definitions. So, @file{bar} could include:@refill @example ifdef bletch ifeq "$(origin bletch)" "environment" bletch = barf, gag, etc. endif endif @end example @noindent If @code{bletch} has been defined from the environment, this will redefine it. If you want to override a previous definition of @code{bletch} if it came from the environment, even under @samp{-e}, you could instead write: @example ifneq "$(findstring environment,$(origin bletch))" "" bletch = barf, gag, etc. endif @end example Here the redefinition takes place if @samp{$(origin bletch)} returns either @samp{environment} or @samp{environment override}. @node Shell Function, , Origin Function, Functions @section The @code{shell} Function @findex shell @cindex command expansion @cindex backquotes The @code{shell} function is unlike any other function except the @code{wildcard} function (@pxref{Wildcard Function}) in that it communicates with the world outside of @code{make}. The @code{shell} function performs the same function that backquotes (@samp{`}) perform in most shells: it does @dfn{command expansion}. This means that it takes an argument that is a shell command and returns the output of the command. The only processing @code{make} does on the result, before substituting it into the surrounding text, is to convert newlines to spaces.@refill The commands run by calls to the @code{shell} function are run when the function calls are expanded. In most cases, this is when the makefile is read in. The exception is that function calls in the commands of the rules are expanded when the commands are run, and this applies to @code{shell} function calls like all others. Here are some examples of the use of the @code{shell} function: @example contents := $(shell cat foo) @end example @noindent sets @code{contents} to the contents of the file @file{foo}, with a space (rather than a newline) separating each line. @example files := $(shell echo *.c) @end example @noindent sets @code{files} to the expansion of @samp{*.c}. Unless @code{make} is using a very strange shell, this has the same result as @samp{$(wildcard *.c)}.@refill @node Running, Implicit, Functions, Top @chapter How to Run @code{make} A makefile that says how to recompile a program can be used in more than one way. The simplest use is to recompile every file that is out of date. This is what @code{make} will do if run with no arguments. But you might want to update only some of the files; you might want to use a different compiler or different compiler options; you might want just to find out which files are out of date without changing them. By specifying arguments when you run @code{make}, you can do any of these things or many others. @menu * Makefile Arguments:: Arguments to specify which makefile to use. * Goals:: Goal arguments specify which parts of the makefile should be used. * Instead of Execution:: Mode flags specify what kind of thing to do with the commands in the makefile other than simply execute them. * Avoiding Compilation:: How to avoid recompiling certain files. * Overriding:: Overriding a variable can specify an alternate compiler, or alternate flags for the compiler, or whatever else you program into the makefile. * Testing:: How to proceed past some errors, to test compilation. * Options:: Summary of all options @code{make} accepts. @end menu @node Makefile Arguments, Goals, Running, Running @section Arguments to Specify the Makefile The way to specify the name of the makefile is with the @samp{-f} option. For example, @samp{-f altmake} says to use the file @file{altmake} as the makefile. If you use the @samp{-f} flag several times (each time with a following argument), all the specified files are used jointly as makefiles. If you do not use the @samp{-f} flag, the default is to try @file{GNUmakefile}, @file{makefile}, or @file{Makefile}, in that order, and use the first of these three which exists. @xref{Makefiles}.@refill @node Goals, Instead of Execution, Makefile Arguments, Running @section Arguments to Specify the Goals @cindex goal The @dfn{goals} are the targets that @code{make} should strive ultimately to update. Other targets are updated as well if they appear as dependencies of goals, or dependencies of dependencies of goals, etc. By default, the goal is the first target in the makefile (not counting targets that start with a period). Therefore, makefiles are usually written so that the first target is for compiling the entire program or programs they describe. You can specify a different goal or goals with arguments to @code{make}. Use the name of the goal as an argument. If you specify several goals, @code{make} processes each of them in turn, in the order you name them. Any target in the makefile may be specified as a goal (unless it starts with @samp{-} or contains an @samp{=}). Even targets not in the makefile may be specified, if @code{make} can find implicit rules that say how to make them. One use of specifying a goal is if you want to compile only a part of the program, or only one of several programs. Specify as a goal each file that you wish to remake. For example, consider a directory containing several programs, with a makefile that starts like this: @example .PHONY: all all: size nm ld ar as @end example If you are working on the program @code{size}, you might want to say @samp{make size} so that only the files of that program are recompiled. Another use of specifying a goal is to make files that aren't normally made. For example, there may be a file of debugging output, or a version of the program that is compiled specially for testing, which has a rule in the makefile but isn't a dependency of the default goal. Another use of specifying a goal is to run the commands associated with a phony target (@pxref{Phony Targets}) or empty target (@pxref{Empty Targets}). Many makefiles contain a phony target named @file{clean} which deletes everything except source files. Naturally, this is done only if you request it explicitly with @samp{make clean}. Here is a list of typical phony and empty target names: @table @file @item all Make all the top-level targets the makefile knows about. @item clean Delete all files that are normally created by running @code{make}. @item distclean @itemx realclean @itemx clobber Any of these three might be defined to delete everything that would not be part of a standard distribution. For example, this would delete configuration files or links that you would normally create as preparation for compilation, even if the makefile itself cannot create these files. @item install Copy the executable file into a directory that users typically search for commands; copy any auxiliary files that the executable uses into the directories where it will look for them. @item print Print listings of the source files that have changed. @item tar Create a tar file of the source files. @item shar Create a shell archive (shar file) of the source files. @item dist Create a distribution file of the source files. This might be a tar file, or a shar file, or a compressed version of one of the above, or even more than one of the above. @end table @node Instead of Execution, Avoiding Compilation, Goals, Running @section Instead of Executing the Commands The makefile tells @code{make} how to tell whether a target is up to date, and how to update each target. But updating the targets is not always what you want. Certain options specify other activities for @code{make}. @table @samp @item -t @cindex touching files @cindex @code{-t} ``Touch''. The activity is to mark the targets as up to date without actually changing them. In other words, @code{make} pretends to compile the targets but does not really change their contents. @item -n @cindex @code{-n} ``No-op''. The activity is to print what commands would be used to make the targets up to date, but not actually execute them. @item -q @cindex @code{-q} @cindex question mode ``Question''. The activity is to find out silently whether the targets are up to date already; but execute no commands in either case. In other words, neither compilation nor output will occur. @item -W @cindex @code{-W} @cindex what if ``What if''. Each @samp{-W} flag is followed by a file name. The given files' modification times are recorded by @code{make} as being the present time, although the actual modification times remain the same. When used in conjunction with the @samp{-n} flag, the @samp{-W} flag provides a way to see what would happen if you were to modify specific files.@refill @end table With the @samp{-n} flag, @code{make} prints without execution the commands that it would normally execute. With the @samp{-t} flag, @code{make} ignores the commands in the rules and uses (in effect) the command @code{touch} for each target that needs to be remade. The @code{touch} command is also printed, unless @samp{-s} or @code{.SILENT} is used. For speed, @code{make} does not actually invoke the program @code{touch}. It does the work directly. With the @samp{-q} flag, @code{make} prints nothing and executes no commands, but the exit status code it returns is zero if and only if the targets to be considered are already up to date. It is an error to use more than one of these three flags in the same invocation of @code{make}. The @samp{-n}, @samp{-t}, and @samp{-q} options do not affect command lines that begin with @samp{+} characters or contain the strings @samp{$(MAKE)} or @samp{$@{MAKE@}}. Note that only the line containing the @samp{+} character or the strings @samp{$(MAKE)} or @samp{$@{MAKE@}} is run regardless of these options. Other lines in the same rule are not run unless they too begin with @samp{+} or contain @samp{$(MAKE)} or @samp{$@{MAKE@}}.@refill The @samp{-W} flag provides two features: @itemize @bullet @item If you also use the @samp{-n} or @samp{-q} flag, you can see what @code{make} would do if you were to modify some files. @item Without the @samp{-n} or @samp{-q} flag, when @code{make} is actually executing commands, the @samp{-W} flag can direct @code{make} to act as if some files had been modified, without actually modifying the files.@refill @end itemize Note that the options @samp{-p} and @samp{-v} allow you to obtain other information about @code{make} or about the makefiles in use. @xref{Options}.@refill @node Avoiding Compilation, Overriding, Instead of Execution, Running @section Avoiding Recompilation of Some Files @cindex @code{-o} Sometimes you may have changed a source file but you don't want to recompile all the files that depend on it. For example, suppose you add a macro or a declaration to a header file that many other files depend on. Being conservative, @code{make} assumes that any change in the header file requires recompilation of all dependent files, but you know that they don't need to be recompiled and you would rather not waste the time waiting for them to compile. If you anticipate the problem before changing the header file, you can use the @samp{-t} flag. This flag tells @code{make} not to run the commands in the rules, but rather to mark the target up to date by changing its last-modification date. You would follow this procedure: @enumerate @item Use the command @samp{make} to recompile the source files that really need recompilation. @item Make the changes in the header files. @item Use the command @samp{make -t} to mark all the object files as up to date. The next time you run @code{make}, the changes in the header files will not cause any recompilation. @end enumerate If you have already changed the header file at a time when some files do need recompilation, it is too late to do this. Instead, you can use the @samp{-o @var{file}} flag, which marks a specified file as ``old'' (@pxref{Options}). This means that the file itself won't be remade, and nothing else will be remade on its account. Follow this procedure: @enumerate @item Recompile the source files that need compilation for reasons independent of the particular header file, with @samp{make -o @var{headerfile}}. If several header files are involved, use a separate @samp{-o} option for each header file. @item Touch all the object files with @samp{make -t}. @end enumerate @node Overriding, Testing, Avoiding Compilation, Running @section Overriding Variables @cindex overriding variables with arguments An argument that contains @samp{=} specifies the value of a variable: @samp{@var{v}=@var{x}} sets the value of the variable @var{v} to @var{x}. If you specify a value in this way, all ordinary assignments of the same variable in the makefile are ignored; we say they have been @dfn{overridden} by the command line argument. The most common way to use this facility is to pass extra flags to compilers. For example, in a properly written makefile, the variable @code{CFLAGS} is included in each command that runs the C compiler, so a file @file{foo.c} would be compiled something like this: @example cc -c $(CFLAGS) foo.c @end example Thus, whatever value you set for @code{CFLAGS} affects each compilation that occurs. The makefile probably specifies the usual value for @code{CFLAGS}, like this: @example CFLAGS=-g @end example Each time you run @code{make}, you can override this value if you wish. For example, if you say @samp{make CFLAGS='-g -O'}, each C compilation will be done with @samp{cc -c -g -O}. (This illustrates how you can enclose spaces and other special characters in the value of a variable when you override it.) The variable @code{CFLAGS} is only one of many standard variables that exist just so that you can change them this way. @xref{Implicit Variables}, for a complete list. You can also program the makefile to look at additional variables of your own, giving the user the ability to control other aspects of how the makefile works by changing the variables. When you override a variable with a command argument, you can define either a recursively-expanded variable or a simply-expanded variable. The examples shown above make a recursively-expanded variable; to make a simply-expanded variable, write @samp{:=} instead of @samp{=}. But, unless you want to include a variable reference or function call in the @emph{value} that you specify, it makes no difference which kind of variable you create. There is one way that the makefile can change a variable that you have overridden. This is to use the @code{override} directive, which is a line that looks like this: @samp{override @var{variable} = @var{value}}. @xref{Override Directive}. @node Testing, Options, Overriding, Running @section Testing the Compilation of a Program @cindex testing compilation Normally, when an error happens in executing a shell command, @code{make} gives up immediately, returning a nonzero status. No further commands are executed for any target. The error implies that the goal cannot be correctly remade, and @code{make} reports this as soon as it knows. When you are compiling a program that you have just changed, this is not what you want. Instead, you would rather that @code{make} try compiling every file that can be tried, to show you as many compilation errors as possible. @cindex @code{-k} On these occasions, you should use the @samp{-k} flag. This tells @code{make} to continue to consider the other dependencies of the pending targets, remaking them if necessary, before it gives up and returns nonzero status. For example, after an error in compiling one object file, @samp{make -k} will continue compiling other object files even though it already knows that linking them will be impossible. In addition to continuing after failed shell commands, @samp{make -k} will continue as much as possible after discovering that it doesn't know how to make a target or dependency file. This will always cause an error message, but without @samp{-k}, it is a fatal error. @xref{Options}. The usual behavior of @code{make} assumes that your purpose is to get the goals up to date; once @code{make} learns that this is impossible, it might as well report the failure immediately. The @samp{-k} flag says that the real purpose is to test as much as possible of the changes made in the program, perhaps to find several independent problems so that you can correct them all before the next attempt to compile. This is why Emacs's @kbd{M-x compile} command passes the @samp{-k} flag by default. @node Options, , Testing, Running @section Summary of Options @cindex options @cindex flags Here is a table of all the options @code{make} understands: @table @samp @item -b @itemx -m These options are ignored for compatibility with other versions of @code{make}. @item -C @var{dir} Change to directory @var{dir} before reading the makefiles. If multiple @samp{-C} options are specified, each is interpreted relative to the previous one: @samp{-C / -C etc} is equivalent to @samp{-C /etc}. This is typically used with recursive invocations of @code{make} (@pxref{Recursion}). @item -d Print debugging information in addition to normal processing. The debugging information says which files are being considered for remaking, which file-times are being compared and with what results, which files actually need to be remade, which implicit rules are considered and which are applied---everything interesting about how @code{make} decides what to do. @item -e Give variables taken from the environment precedence over variables from makefiles. @xref{Environment}. @item -f @var{file} Use file @var{file} as a makefile. @xref{Makefiles}. @item -i Ignore all errors in commands executed to remake files. @xref{Errors}. @item -I @var{dir} Specifies a directory @var{dir} to search for included makefiles. @xref{Include}. If several @samp{-I} options are used to specify several directories, the directories are searched in the order specified. Unlike the arguments to other flags of @code{make}, directories given with @samp{-I} flags may come directly after the flag: @samp{-I@var{dir}} is allowed, as well as @samp{-I @var{dir}}. This syntax is allowed for compatibility with the C preprocessor's @samp{-I} flag.@refill @item -j @var{jobs} Specifies the number of jobs (commands) to run simultaneously. If there is more than one @samp{-j} option, the last one is effective. @xref{Execution}, for more information on how commands are run. @item -k Continue as much as possible after an error. While the target that failed, and those that depend on it, cannot be remade, the other dependencies of these targets can be processed all the same. @xref{Testing}. @item -l @var{load} @item -l Specifies that no new jobs (commands) should be started if there are others jobs running and the load average is at least @var{load} (a floating-point number). With no argument, removes a previous load limit. @xref{Parallel}. @item -n Print the commands that would be executed, but do not execute them. @xref{Instead of Execution}. @item -o @var{file} Do not remake the file @var{file} even if it is older than its dependencies, and do not remake anything on account of changes in @var{file}. Essentially the file is treated as very old and its rules are ignored. @xref{Avoiding Compilation}. @item -p Print the data base (rules and variable values) that results from reading the makefiles; then execute as usual or as otherwise specified. This also prints the version information given by the @samp{-v} switch (see below). To print the data base without trying to remake any files, use @samp{make -p -f /dev/null}. @item -q ``Question mode''. Do not run any commands, or print anything; just return an exit status that is zero if the specified targets are already up to date, nonzero otherwise. @xref{Instead of Execution}. @item -r Eliminate use of the built-in implicit rules (@pxref{Implicit}). Also clear out the default list of suffixes for suffix rules (@pxref{Suffix Rules}). @item -s Silent operation; do not print the commands as they are executed. @xref{Echoing}. @item -S Cancel the effect of the @samp{-k} option. This is never necessary except in a recursive @code{make} where @samp{-k} might be inherited from the top-level @code{make} via @code{MAKEFLAGS} (@pxref{Recursion}) or if you set @samp{-k} in @code{MAKEFLAGS} in your environment.@refill @item -t Touch files (mark them up to date without really changing them) instead of running their commands. This is used to pretend that the commands were done, in order to fool future invocations of @code{make}. @xref{Instead of Execution}. @item -v Print the version of the @code{make} program plus a copyright, a list of authors and a notice that there is no warranty. After this information is printed, processing continues normally. To get this information without doing anything else, use @samp{make -v -f /dev/null}. @item -w Print a message containing the working directory both before and after executing the makefile. This may be useful for tracking down errors from complicated nests of recursive @code{make} commands. @xref{Recursion}. @item -W @var{file} Pretend that the target @var{file} has just been modified. When used with the @samp{-n} flag, this shows you what would happen if you were to modify that file. Without @samp{-n}, it is almost the same as running a @code{touch} command on the given file before running @code{make}, except that the modification time is changed only in the imagination of @code{make}.@refill @end table @node Implicit, Archives, Running, Top @chapter Using Implicit Rules @cindex implicit rule Certain standard ways of remaking target files are used very often. For example, one customary way to make an object file is from a C source file using the C compiler, @code{cc}. @dfn{Implicit rules} tell @code{make} how to use customary techniques so that you don't have to specify them in detail when you want to use them. For example, there is an implicit rule for C compilation. Implicit rules work based on file names. For example, C compilation typically takes a @file{.c} file and makes a @file{.o} file. So @code{make} applies the implicit rule for C compilation when it sees this combination of file-name endings. A chain of implicit rules can apply in sequence; for example, @code{make} will remake a @file{.o} file from a @file{.y} file by way of a @file{.c} file. @iftex @xref{Chained Rules}. @end iftex The built-in implicit rules use several variables in their commands so that, by changing the values of the variables, you can change the way the implicit rule works. For example, the variable @code{CFLAGS} controls the flags given to the C compiler by the implicit rule for C compilation. @iftex @xref{Implicit Variables}. @end iftex You can define your own implicit rules by writing @dfn{pattern rules}. @iftex @xref{Pattern Rules}. @end iftex @menu * Using Implicit:: How to use an existing implicit rule to get the commands for updating a file. * Catalogue of Rules:: Catalogue of built-in implicit rules. * Implicit Variables:: By changing certain variables, you can change what the predefined implicit rules do. * Chained Rules:: Using a chain of implicit rules. * Pattern Rules:: Defining new implicit rules. * Last Resort:: Defining commands for rules which can't find any. * Suffix Rules:: The old-fashioned style of implicit rule. * Search Algorithm:: Precise algorithm for applying implicit rules. @end menu @node Using Implicit, Catalogue of Rules, Implicit, Implicit @section Using Implicit Rules To allow @code{make} to find a customary method for updating a target file, all you have to do is refrain from specifying commands yourself. Either write a rule with no command lines, or don't write a rule at all. Then @code{make} will figure out which implicit rule to use based on which kind of source file exists. For example, suppose the makefile looks like this: @example foo : foo.o bar.o cc -o foo foo.o bar.o $(CFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS) @end example @noindent Because you mention @file{foo.o} but do not give a rule for it, @code{make} will automatically look for an implicit rule that tells how to update it. This happens whether or not the file @file{foo.o} currently exists. If an implicit rule is found, it supplies both commands and one or more dependencies (the source files). You would want to write a rule for @file{foo.o} with no command lines if you need to specify additional dependencies, such as header files, that the implicit rule cannot supply. Each implicit rule has a target pattern and dependency patterns. There may be many implicit rules with the same target pattern. For example, numerous rules make @samp{.o} files: one, from a @samp{.c} file with the C compiler; another, from a @samp{.p} file with the Pascal compiler; and so on. The rule that actually applies is the one whose dependencies exist or can be made. So, if you have a file @file{foo.c}, @code{make} will run the C compiler; otherwise, if you have a file @file{foo.p}, @code{make} will run the Pascal compiler; and so on. Of course, when you write the makefile, you know which implicit rule you want @code{make} to use, and you know it will choose that one because you know which possible dependency files are supposed to exist. @xref{Catalogue of Rules}, for a catalogue of all the predefined implicit rules. Above, we said an implicit rule applies if the required dependencies ``exist or can be made''. A file ``can be made'' if it is mentioned explicitly in the makefile as a target or a dependency, or if an implicit rule can be recursively found for how to make it. When an implicit dependency is the result of another implicit rule, we say that @dfn{chaining} is occurring. @xref{Chained Rules}. In general, @code{make} searches for an implicit rule for each target, and for each double-colon rule, that has no commands. A file that is mentioned only as a dependency is considered a target whose rule specifies nothing, so implicit rule search happens for it. @xref{Search Algorithm}, for the details of how the search is done. If you don't want an implicit rule to be used for a target that has no commands, you can give that target empty commands by writing a semicolon. @xref{Empty Commands}. @node Catalogue of Rules, Implicit Variables, Using Implicit, Implicit @section Catalogue of Implicit Rules Here is a catalogue of predefined implicit rules which are always available unless the makefile explicitly overrides or cancels them. @xref{Canceling Rules}, for information on canceling or overriding an implicit rule. The @samp{-r} option cancels all predefined rules. Not all of these rules will always be defined, even when the @samp{-r} option is not given. Many of the predefined implicit rules are implemented in @code{make} as suffix rules, so which ones will be defined depends on the @dfn{suffix list} (the list of dependencies of the special target @code{.SUFFIXES}). @xref{Suffix Rules}. The default suffix list is: @samp{.out}, @samp{.a}, @samp{.o}, @samp{.c}, @samp{.cc}, @samp{.p}, @samp{.f}, @samp{.F}, @samp{.r}, @samp{.e}, @samp{.y}, @samp{.ye}, @samp{.yr}, @samp{.l}, @samp{.s}, @samp{.S}, @samp{.h}, @samp{.info}, @samp{.dvi}, @samp{.tex}, @samp{.texinfo}, @samp{.cweb}, @samp{.web}, @samp{.sh}, @samp{.elc}, @samp{.el}. All of the implicit rules described below whose dependencies have one of these suffixes are actually suffix rules. If you modify the suffix list, the only predefined suffix rules in effect will be those named by one or two of the suffixes that are on the list you specify; rules whose suffixes fail to be on the list are disabled.@refill @table @asis @item Compiling C programs @file{@var{n}.o} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.c} with a command of the form @samp{$(CC) -c $(CPPFLAGS) $(CFLAGS)}.@refill @item Compiling C++ programs @file{@var{n}.o} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.cc} with a command of the form @samp{$(C++) -c $(CPPFLAGS) $(C++FLAGS)}. Although supported by the GNU C++ compiler, the suffix used by the AT&T C++ preprocessor, @samp{.C}, is not supported in @code{make} because we encourage the use of the preferred suffix for C++ files, @samp{.cc}.@refill @item Compiling Pascal programs @file{@var{n}.o} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.p} with the command @samp{$(PC) -c $(PFLAGS)}.@refill @item Compiling Fortran and Ratfor programs @file{@var{n}.o} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.r}, @file{@var{n}.F} or @file{@var{n}.f} by running the Fortran compiler. The precise command used is as follows:@refill @table @samp @item .f @samp{$(FC) -c $(FFLAGS)}. @item .F @samp{$(FC) -c $(FFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS)}. @item .r @samp{$(FC) -c $(FFLAGS) $(RFLAGS)}. @end table @item Preprocessing Fortran and Ratfor programs @file{@var{n}.f} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.r} or @file{@var{n}.F}. This rule runs just the preprocessor to convert a Ratfor or preprocessable Fortran program into a strict Fortran program. The precise command used is as follows:@refill @table @samp @item .F @samp{$(FC) -F $(CPPFLAGS) $(FFLAGS)}. @item .r @samp{$(FC) -F $(FFLAGS) $(RFLAGS)}. @end table @item Compiling Modula-2 programs @file{@var{n}.sym} will be made from @file{@var{n}.def} with a command of the form @samp{$(M2C) $(M2FLAGS) $(DEFFLAGS)}. @file{@var{n}.o} will be made from @file{@var{n}.mod} with a command of the form @samp{$(M2C) $(M2FLAGS) $(MODFLAGS)}.@refill @item Assembling and preprocessing assembler programs @file{@var{n}.o} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.s} by running the assembler @code{as}. The precise command used is @samp{$(AS) $(ASFLAGS)}.@refill @file{@var{n}.s} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.S} by running the C preprocessor @code{cpp}. The precise command used is @samp{$(CPP) $(CPPFLAGS)}.@refill @item Linking a single object file @file{@var{n}} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.o} by running the linker @code{ld} via the C compiler. The precise command used is @samp{$(CC) $(LDFLAGS) @var{n}.o $(LOADLIBES)}.@refill This rule does the right thing for a simple program with only one source file. It will also do the right thing if there are multiple object files (presumably coming from various other source files), the first of which has a name matching that of the executable file. Thus, @example x: y.o z.o @end example @noindent when @file{x.c}, @file{y.c} and @file{z.c} all exist will execute: @example cc -c x.c -o x.o cc -c y.c -o y.o cc -c z.c -o z.o cc x.o y.o z.o -o x rm -f x.o rm -f y.o rm -f z.o @end example @noindent In more complicated cases, such as when there is no object file whose name derives from the executable file name, you must write an explicit command for linking. Each kind of file automatically made into @code{.o} object files will be automatically linked by using the compiler (@samp{$(CC)}, @samp{$(FC)} or @samp{$(PC)}; the C compiler @samp{$(CC)} is used to assemble @code{.s} files) without the @samp{-c} option. This could be done by using the @code{.o} object files as intermediates, but it is faster to do the compiling and linking in one step, so that's how it's done.@refill @item Yacc for C programs @file{@var{n}.c} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.y} by running Yacc with the command @samp{$(YACC) $(YFLAGS)}. @item Lex for C programs @file{@var{n}.c} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.l} by by running Lex. The actual command is @samp{$(LEX) $(LFLAGS)}. @item Lex for Ratfor programs @file{@var{n}.r} will be made automatically from @file{@var{n}.l} by by running Lex. The actual command is @samp{$(LEX) $(LFLAGS)}. The convention of using the same suffix @samp{.l} for all Lex files regardless of whether they produce C code or Ratfor code makes it impossible for @code{make} to determine automatically which of the two languages you are using in any particular case. If @code{make} is called upon to remake an object file from a @samp{.l} file, it must guess which compiler to use. It will guess the C compiler, because that is more common. If you are using Ratfor, make sure @code{make} knows this by mentioning @file{@var{n}.r} in the makefile. Or, if you are using Ratfor exclusively, with no C files, remove @code{.c} from the list of implicit rule suffixes with:@refill @example .SUFFIXES: .SUFFIXES: .r .f .l @dots{} @end example @item Making Lint Libraries from C, Yacc, or Lex programs @file{@var{n}.ln} will be made from @file{@var{n}.c} with a command of the form @samp{$(LINT) $(LINTFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) -i}. The same command will be used on the C code produced from @file{@var{n}.y} or @file{@var{n}.l}.@refill @item @TeX{} and Web @file{@var{n}.dvi} will be made from @file{@var{n}.tex} with the command @samp{$(TEX)}. @file{@var{n}.tex} will be made from @file{@var{n}.web} with @samp{$(WEAVE)}, or from @file{@var{n}.cweb} with @samp{$(CWEAVE)}. @file{@var{n}.p} will be made from @file{@var{n}.web} with @samp{$(TANGLE)} and @file{@var{n}.c} will be made from @file{@var{n}.cweb} with @samp{$(CTANGLE)}.@refill @item Texinfo and Info @file{@var{n}.dvi} will be made from @file{@var{n}.texinfo} using the @samp{$(TEX)} and @samp{$(TEXINDEX)} commands. The actual command sequence contains many shell conditionals to avoid unnecessarily running @TeX{} twice and to create the proper sorted index files. @file{@var{n}.info} will be made from @file{@var{n}.texinfo} with the command @samp{$(MAKEINFO)}.@refill @item RCS Any file @file{@var{n}} will be extracted if necessary from an RCS file named either @file{@var{n},v} or @file{RCS/@var{n},v}. The precise command used is @samp{$(CO) $(COFLAGS)}. @file{@var{n}} will not be extracted from RCS if it already exists, even if the RCS file is newer.@refill @item SCCS Any file @file{@var{n}} will be extracted if necessary from an SCCS file named either @file{s.@var{n}} or @file{SCCS/s.@var{n}}. The precise command used is @samp{$(GET) $(GFLAGS)}.@refill For the benefit of SCCS, a file @file{@var{n}} will be copied from @file{@var{n}.sh} and made executable (by everyone). This is for shell scripts that are checked into SCCS. Since RCS preserves the execution permission of a file, you don't need to use this feature with RCS.@refill We recommend that you avoid the use of SCCS. RCS is widely held to be superior, and is also free. By choosing free software in place of comparable (or inferior) proprietary software, you support the free software movement. @end table @node Implicit Variables, Chained Rules, Catalogue of Rules, Implicit @section Variables Used by Implicit Rules @cindex flags for compilers The commands in built-in implicit rules make liberal use of certain predefined variables. You can alter these variables, either in the makefile or with arguments to @code{make}, to alter how the implicit rules work without redefining the rules themselves. For example, the command used to compile a C source file actually says @samp{$(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS)}. The default values of the variables used are @samp{cc} and nothing, resulting in the command @samp{cc -c}. By redefining @samp{$(CC)} to @samp{ncc}, you could cause @samp{ncc} to be used for all C compilations performed by the implicit rule. By redefining @samp{$(CFLAGS)} to be @samp{-g}, you could pass the @samp{-g} option to each compilation. @emph{All} implicit rules that do C compilation use @samp{$(CC)} to get the program name for the compiler and @emph{all} include @samp{$(CFLAGS)} among the arguments given to the compiler.@refill The variables used in implicit rules fall into two classes: those that are names of programs (like @code{CC}) and those that contain arguments for the programs (like @code{CFLAGS}). (The ``name of a program'' may also contain some command arguments, but it must start with an actual executable program name.) If a variable value contains more than one argument, separate them with spaces. Here is a table of variables used as names of programs: @table @code @item AR @vindex AR Archive-maintaing program; default @samp{ar}. @item AS @vindex AS Program for doing assembly; default @samp{as}. @item CC @vindex CC Program for compiling C programs; default @samp{cc}. @item C++ @vindex C++ Program for compiling C++ programs; default @samp{g++}. @item CO @vindex CO Program for extracting a file from RCS; default @samp{co}. @item CPP @vindex CPP Program for running the C preprocessor, with results to standard output; default @samp{$(CC) -E}. @item FC @vindex FC Program for compiling or preprocessing Fortran, Ratfor, and EFL programs; default @samp{f77}. @item GET @vindex GET Program for extracting a file from SCCS; default @samp{get}. @item LEX @vindex LEX Program to use to turn Lex grammars into C programs or Ratfor programs; default @samp{lex}. @item PC @vindex PC Program for compiling Pascal programs; default @samp{pc}. @item FC @itemx EC @itemx RC @vindex FC @vindex EC @vindex RC Programs for compiling Fortran, EFL, and Ratfor programs, respectively; these all default to @samp{f77}. @item YACC @vindex YACC Program to use to turn Yacc grammars into C programs; default @samp{yacc}. @item YACCR @vindex YACCR Program to use to turn Yacc grammars into Ratfor programs; default @samp{yacc -r}. @item YACCE @vindex YACCE Program to use to turn Yacc grammars into EFL programs; default @samp{yacc -e}. @item MAKEINFO @vindex MAKEINFO Program to make Info files from Texinfo source; default @samp{makeinfo}. @item TEX @vindex TEX Program to make @TeX{} DVI files from @TeX{} or Texinfo source; default @samp{tex}. @item TEXINDEX @vindex TEXINDEX The @code{texindex} program distributed with Emacs. This is used in the process to make @TeX{} DVI files from Texinfo source. @item WEAVE @vindex WEAVE Program to translate Web into @TeX{}; default @samp{weave}. @item CWEAVE @vindex CWEAVE Program to translate C Web into @TeX{}; default @samp{cweave}. @item TANGLE @vindex TANGLE Program to translate Web into Pascal; default @samp{tangle}. @item CTANGLE @vindex CTANGLE Program to translate C Web into C; default @samp{ctangle}. @item RM @vindex RM Command to remove a file; default @samp{rm -f}. @end table Here is a table of variables whose values are additional arguments for the programs above. The default values for all of these is the empty string, unless otherwise noted. @table @code @item ARFLAGS @vindex ARFLAGS Flags to give the archive- maintaining program; default @samp{rv}. @item ASFLAGS @vindex ASFLAGS Extra flags to give to the assembler (when explicitly invoked on a @samp{.s} file). @item CFLAGS @vindex CFLAGS Extra flags to give to the C compiler. @item C++FLAGS @vindex C++FLAGS Extra flags to give to the C++ compiler. @item COFLAGS @vindex COFLAGS Extra flags to give to the RCS @code{co} program. @item CPPFLAGS @vindex CPPFLAGS Extra flags to give to the C preprocessor and programs that use it (the C and Fortran compilers). @item EFLAGS @vindex EFLAGS Extra flags to give to the Fortran compiler for EFL programs. @item FFLAGS @vindex FFLAGS Extra flags to give to the Fortran compiler. @item GFLAGS @vindex GFLAGS Extra flags to give to the SCCS @code{get} program. @item LDFLAGS @vindex LDFLAGS Extra flags to give to compilers when they are supposed to invoke the linker, @samp{ld}. @item LFLAGS @vindex LFLAGS Extra flags to give to Lex. @item PFLAGS @vindex PFLAGS Extra flags to give to the Pascal compiler. @item RFLAGS @vindex RFLAGS Extra flags to give to the Fortran compiler for Ratfor programs. @item YFLAGS @vindex YFLAGS Extra flags to give to Yacc. @end table @node Chained Rules, Pattern Rules, Implicit Variables, Implicit @section Chains of Implicit Rules @cindex chains of rules Sometimes a file can be made by a sequence of implicit rules. For example, a file @file{@var{n}.o} could be made from @file{@var{n}.y} by running first Yacc and then @code{cc}. Such a sequence is called a @dfn{chain}. If the file @file{@var{n}.c} exists, or is mentioned in the makefile, no special searching is required: @code{make} finds that the object file can be made by C compilation from @file{@var{n}.c}; later on, when considering how to make @file{@var{n}.c}, the rule for running Yacc will be used. Ultimately both @file{@var{n}.c} and @file{@var{n}.o} are updated.@refill @cindex intermediate file However, even if @file{@var{n}.c} does not exist and is not mentioned, @code{make} knows how to envision it as the missing link between @file{@var{n}.o} and @file{@var{n}.y}! In this case, @file{@var{n}.c} is called an @dfn{intermediate file}. Once @code{make} has decided to use the intermediate file, it is entered in the data base as if it had been mentioned in the makefile, along with the implicit rule that says how to create it.@refill Intermediate files are remade using their rules just like all other files. The difference is that the intermediate file is deleted when @code{make} is finished. Therefore, the intermediate file which did not exist before @code{make} also does not exist after @code{make}. The deletion is reported to you by printing a @samp{rm -f} command that shows what @code{make} is doing. (You can optionally define an implicit rule so as to preserve certain intermediate files. You can also list the target pattern of an implicit rule (such as @samp{%.o}) as a dependency file of the special target @code{.PRECIOUS} to preserve intermediate files whose target patterns match that file's name.)@refill @cindex preserving intermediate files with .PRECIOUS A chain can involve more than two implicit rules. For example, it is possible to make a file @file{foo} from @file{RCS/foo.y,v} by running RCS, Yacc and @code{cc}. Then both @file{foo.y} and @file{foo.c} are intermediate files that are deleted at the end.@refill No single implicit rule can appear more than once in a chain. This means that @code{make} will not even consider such a ridiculous thing as making @file{foo} from @file{foo.o.o} by running the linker twice. This constraint has the added benefit of preventing any infinite loop in the search for an implicit rule chain. There are some special implicit rules to optimize certain cases that would otherwise by handled by rule chains. For example, making @file{foo} from @file{foo.c} could be handled by compiling and linking with separate chained rules, using @file{foo.o} as an intermediate file. But what actually happens is that a special rule for this case does the compilation and linking with a single @code{cc} command. The optimized rule is used in preference to the step-by-step chain because it comes earlier in the ordering of rules. @node Pattern Rules, Last Resort, Chained Rules, Implicit @section Defining and Redefining Pattern Rules You define an implicit rule by writing a @dfn{pattern rule}. A pattern rule looks like an ordinary rule, except that its target contains the character @samp{%} (exactly one of them). The target is considered a pattern for matching file names; the @samp{%} can match any nonempty substring, while other characters match only themselves. The dependencies likewise use @samp{%} to show how their names relate to the target name. Thus, a pattern rule @samp{%.o : %.c} says how to make any file @file{@var{stem}.o} from another file @file{@var{stem}.c}.@refill @menu * Intro: Pattern Intro. Basics of writing pattern rules. * Examples: Pattern Examples. Real examples of pattern rule definitions. * Vars: Automatic. The automatic variables enable the commands in pattern rules to act on the right files. * Matching: Pattern Match. Details of how patterns match. * Match-Anything Rules:: Precautions in defining a rules that can match any target file whatever. * Canceling Rules:: Overriding or canceling built-in rules. * Last Resort:: How to define a last-resort rule that applies to any target that no other rule applies to. * Suffix Rules:: The old-fashioned way to define implicit rules. @end menu @node Pattern Intro, Pattern Examples, Pattern Rules, Pattern Rules @subsection Introduction to Pattern Rules @cindex pattern rule You define an implicit rule by writing a @dfn{pattern rule}. A pattern rule looks like an ordinary rule, except that its target contains the character @samp{%} (exactly one of them). The target is considered a pattern for matching file names; the @samp{%} can match any nonempty substring, while other characters match only themselves. For example, @samp{%.c} as a pattern matches any file name that ends in @samp{.c}. @samp{s.%.c} as a pattern matches any file name that starts with @samp{s.}, ends in @samp{.c} and is at least five characters long. (There must be at least one character to match the @samp{%}.) The substring that the @samp{%} matches is called the @dfn{stem}.@refill @samp{%} in a dependency of a pattern rule stands for the same stem that was matched by the @samp{%} in the target. In order for the pattern rule to apply, its target pattern must match the file name under consideration, and its dependency patterns must name files that exist or can be made. These files become dependencies of the target. Thus, a rule of the form @example %.o : %.c @end example @noindent would specify how to make any file @file{@var{n}.o}, with another file @file{@var{n}.c} as its dependency, provided that the other file exists or can be made. There may also be dependencies that do not use @samp{%}; such a dependency attaches to every file made by this pattern rule. These unvarying dependencies are useful occasionally. It is allowed for a pattern rule to have no dependencies that contain @samp{%} or to have no dependencies at all. This is effectively a general wildcard. It provides a way to make any file that matches the target pattern. Pattern rules may have more than one target. Unlike normal rules, this does not act as many different rules with the same dependencies and commands. If a pattern rule has multiple targets, @code{make} knows that the rule's commands are responsible for making all of the targets. The commands are executed only once to make all of the targets. When searching for a pattern rule to match a target, the target patterns of a rule other than the one that matches the target in need of a rule are incidental: @code{make} worries only about giving commands and dependencies to the file presently in question. However, when this file's commands are run, the other targets are marked as having been updated themselves. The order in which pattern rules appear in the makefile is important because the rules are considered in that order. Of equally applicable rules, the first one found is used. The rules you write take precedence over those that are built in. Note, however, that a rule whose dependencies actually exist or are mentioned always takes priority over a rule with dependencies that must be made by chaining other implicit rules. @node Pattern Examples, Automatic, Pattern Intro, Pattern Rules @subsection Pattern Rule Examples Here are some examples of pattern rules actually predefined in @code{make}. First, the rule that compiles @samp{.c} files into @samp{.o} files:@refill @example %.o : %.c $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) $< -o $@@ @end example @noindent defines a rule that can make any file @file{@var{x}.o} from @file{@var{x}.c}. The command uses the automatic variables @samp{$@@} and @samp{$<} to substitute the names of the target file and the source file in each case where the rule applies (@pxref{Automatic}).@refill Here is a second built-in rule: @example % :: RCS/%,v $(CO) $(COFLAGS) $< @end example @noindent defines a rule that can make any file @file{@var{x}} whatever from a corresponding file @file{@var{x},v} in the subdirectory @file{RCS}. Since the target is @samp{%}, this rule will apply to any file whatever, provided the appropriate dependency file exists. The double colon makes the rule @dfn{terminal}, which means that its dependency may not be an intermediate file (@pxref{Match-Anything Rules}).@refill This pattern rule has two targets: @example %.tab.c %.tab.h: %.y bison -d $< @end example @noindent This tells @code{make} that the command @samp{bison -d @var{x}.y} will make both @file{@var{x}.tab.c} and @file{@var{x}.tab.h}. If the file @file{foo} depends on the files @file{parse.tab.o} and @file{scan.o} and @file{scan.o} depends on @file{parse.tab.h}, when @file{parse.y} is changed, the command @samp{bison -d parse.y} will be executed only once, and the dependencies of both @file{parse.tab.o} and @file{scan.o} will be satisfied. (Presumably, @file{parse.tab.o} will be recompiled from @file{parse.tab.c} and @file{scan.o} from @file{scan.c}, and @file{foo} will be linked from @file{parse.tab.o}, @file{scan.o}, and its other dependencies, and it will execute happily ever after.)@refill @node Automatic, Pattern Match, Pattern Examples, Pattern Rules @subsection Automatic Variables @cindex automatic variables Suppose you are writing a pattern rule to compile a @samp{.c} file into a @samp{.o} file: how do you write the @samp{cc} command so that it operates on the right source file name? You can't write the name in the command, because the name is different each time the implicit rule is applied. What you do is use a special feature of @code{make}, the @dfn{automatic variables}. These variables have values computed afresh for each rule that is executed, based on the target and dependencies of the rule. In this example, you would use @samp{$@@} for the object file name and @samp{$<} for the source file name. Here is a table of automatic variables: @table @code @item $@@ The file name of the target of the rule. If the target is an archive member, then @samp{$@@} is the name of the archive file. @item $% The target member name, when the target is an archive member. For example, if the target is @file{foo.a(bar.o)} then @samp{$%} is @file{bar.o} and @samp{$@@} is @file{foo.a}. @samp{$%} is empty when the target is not an archive member. @item $< The name of the first dependency. @item $? The names of all the dependencies that are newer than the target, with spaces between them. @item $^ The names of all the dependencies, with spaces between them. @item $* The stem with which an implicit rule matches (@pxref{Pattern Match}). If the target is @file{dir/a.foo.b} and the target pattern is @file{a.%.b} then the stem is @file{dir/foo}. The stem is useful for constructing names of related files.@refill In an explicit rule, there is no stem; so @samp{$*} cannot be determined in that way. Instead, if the target name ends with a recognized suffix (@pxref{Suffix Rules}), @samp{$*} is set to the target name minus the suffix. For example, if the target name is @samp{foo.c}, then @samp{$*} is set to @samp{foo}, since @samp{.c} is a suffix.@refill If the target name in an explicit rule does not end with a recognized suffix, @samp{$*} is set to the empty string for that rule. @end table @samp{$?} is useful even in explicit rules when you wish to operate on only the dependencies that have changed. For example, suppose that an archive named @file{lib} is supposed to contain copies of several object files. This rule copies just the changed object files into the archive: @example lib: foo.o bar.o lose.o win.o ar r lib $? @end example Of the variables listed above, four have values that are single file names, and two have values that are lists of file names. These six have variants that get just the file's directory name or just the file name within the directory. The variant variables' names are formed by appending @samp{D} or @samp{F}, respectively. These variants are semi-obsolete in GNU @code{make} since the functions @code{dir} and @code{notdir} can be used to get an equivalent effect (@pxref{Filename Functions}). Here is a table of the variants:@refill @table @samp @item $(@@D) The directory part of the file name of the target. If the value of @samp{$@@} is @file{dir/foo.o} then @samp{$(@@D)} is @file{dir/}. This value is @file{./} if @samp{$@@} does not contain a slash. @samp{$(@@D)} is equivalent to @samp{$(dir $@@)}.@refill @item $(@@F) The file-within-directory part of the file name of the target. If the value of @samp{$@@} is @file{dir/foo.o} then @samp{$(@@F)} is @file{foo.o}. @samp{$(@@F)} is equivalent to @samp{$(notdir $@@)}. @item $(*D) @itemx $(*F) The directory part and the file-within-directory part of the stem; @file{dir/} and @file{foo} in this example. @item $(%D) @itemx $(%F) The directory part and the file-within-directory part of the target archive member name. This makes sense only for archive member targets of the form @file{@var{archive}(@var{member})} and useful only when @var{member} may contain a directory name. (@xref{Archive Members}.) @item $(<D) @itemx $(<F) The directory part and the file-within-directory part of the first dependency. @item $(^D) @itemx $(^F) Lists of the directory parts and the file-within-directory parts of all dependencies. @item $(?D) @itemx $(?F) Lists of the directory parts and the file-within-directory parts of all dependencies that are out of date with respect to the target. @end table Note that we use a special stylistic convention when we talk about these automatic variables; we write ``the value of @samp{$<}'', rather than ``the variable @code{<}'' as we would write for ordinary variables such as @code{objects} and @code{CFLAGS}. We think this convention looks more natural in this special case. Please don't assume it has a deep significance; @samp{$<} refers to the variable named @code{<} just as @samp{$(CFLAGS)} refers to the variable named @code{CFLAGS}.@refill @node Pattern Match, Match-Anything Rules, Automatic, Pattern Rules @subsection How Patterns Match @cindex stem A target pattern is composed of a @samp{%} between a prefix and a suffix, either or both of which may be empty. The pattern matches a file name only if the file name starts with the prefix and ends with the suffix, without overlap. The text between the prefix and the suffix is called the @dfn{stem}. Thus, when the pattern @samp{%.o} matches the file name @file{test.o}, the stem is @samp{test}. The pattern rule dependencies are turned into actual file names by substituting the stem for the character @samp{%}. Thus, if in the same example one of the dependencies is written as @samp{%.c}, it expands to @samp{test.c}.@refill When the target pattern does not contain a slash (and usually it does not), directory names in the file names are removed from the file name before it is compared with the target prefix and suffix. The directory names, along with the slash that ends them, are added back to the stem. Thus, @samp{e%t} does match the file name @file{src/eat}, with @samp{src/a} as the stem. When dependencies are turned into file names, the directories from the stem are added at the front, while the rest of the stem is substituted for the @samp{%}. The stem @samp{src/a} with a dependency pattern @samp{c%r} gives the file name @file{src/car}.@refill @node Match-Anything Rules, Canceling Rules, Pattern Match, Pattern Rules @subsection Match-Anything Pattern Rules @cindex match-anything rule @cindex terminal rule When a pattern rule's target is just @samp{%}, it matches any filename whatever. We call these rules @dfn{match-anything} rules. They are very useful, but it can take a lot of time for @code{make} to think about them, because it must consider every such rule for each file name listed either as a target or as a dependency. Suppose the makefile mentions @file{foo.c}. For this target, @code{make} would have to consider making it by linking an object file @file{foo.c.o}, or by C compilation-and-linking in one step from @file{foo.c.c}, or by Pascal compilation-and-linking from @file{foo.c.p}, and many other possibilities. We know these possibilities are ridiculous since @file{foo.c} is a C source file, not an executable. If @code{make} did consider these possibilities, it would ultimately reject them, because files such as @file{foo.c.o}, @file{foo.c.p}, etc. would not exist. But these possibilities are so numerous that @code{make} would run very slowly if it had to consider them.@refill To gain speed, we have put various constraints on the way @code{make} considers match-anything rules. There are two different constraints that can be applied, and each time you define a match-anything rule you must choose one or the other for that rule. One choice is to mark the match-anything rule as @dfn{terminal} by defining it with a double colon. When a rule is terminal, it does not apply unless its dependencies actually exist. Dependencies that could be made with other implicit rules are not good enough. In other words, no further chaining is allowed beyond a terminal rule. For example, the built-in implicit rules for extracting sources from RCS and SCCS files are terminal; as a result, if the file @file{foo.c,v} does not exist, @code{make} will not even consider trying to make it as an intermediate file from @file{foo.c,v.o} or from @file{RCS/SCCS/s.foo.c,v}. RCS and SCCS files are generally ultimate source files, which should not be remade from any other files; therefore, @code{make} can save time by not looking for ways to remake them.@refill If you do not mark the match-anything rule as terminal, then it is nonterminal. A nonterminal match-anything rule cannot apply to a file name that indicates a specific type of data. A file name indicates a specific type of data if some non-match-anything implicit rule target matches it. For example, the file name @file{foo.c} matches the target for the pattern rule @samp{%.c : %.y} (the rule to run Yacc). Regardless of whether this rule is actually applicable (which happens only if there is a file @file{foo.y}), the fact that its target matches is enough to prevent consideration of any nonterminal match-anything rules for the file @file{foo.c}. Thus, @code{make} will not even consider trying to make @file{foo.c} as an executable file from @file{foo.c.o}, @file{foo.c.c}, @file{foo.c.p}, etc.@refill The motivation for this constraint is that nonterminal match-anything rules are used for making files containing specific types of data (such as executable files) and a file name with a recognized suffix indicates some other specific type of data (such as a C source file). Special built-in dummy pattern rules are provided solely to recognize certain file names so that nonterminal match-anything rules won't be considered. These dummy rules have no dependencies and no commands, and they are ignored for all other purposes. For example, the built-in implicit rule @example %.p : @end example @noindent exists to make sure that Pascal source files such as @file{foo.p} match a specific target pattern and thereby prevent time from being wasted looking for @file{foo.p.o} or @file{foo.p.c}. Dummy pattern rules such as the one for @samp{%.p} are made for every suffix listed as valid for use in suffix rules. @xref{Suffix Rules}. @node Canceling Rules, , Match-Anything Rules, Pattern Rules @subsection Canceling Implicit Rules You can override a built-in implicit rule by defining a new pattern rule with the same target and dependencies, but different commands. When the new rule is defined, the built-in one is replaced. The new rule's position in the sequence of implicit rules is determined by where you write the new rule. You can cancel a built-in implicit rule by defining a pattern rule with the same target and dependencies, but no commands. For example, the following would cancel the rule that runs the assembler: @example %.o : %.s @end example @node Last Resort, Suffix Rules, Pattern Rules, Implicit @section Defining Last-Resort Default Rules @findex .DEFAULT You can define a last-resort implicit rule by writing a rule for the target @code{.DEFAULT}. Such a rule's commands are used for all targets and dependencies that have no commands of their own and for which no other implicit rule applies. Naturally, there is no @code{.DEFAULT} rule unless you write one. For example, when testing a makefile, you might not care if the source files contain real data, only that they exist. Then you might do this: @example .DEFAULT: touch $@@ @end example @noindent to cause all the source files needed (as dependencies) to be created automatically. If you give @code{.DEFAULT} with no commands or dependencies: @example .DEFAULT: @end example @noindent the commands previously stored for @code{.DEFAULT} are cleared. Then @code{make} acts as if you had never defined @code{.DEFAULT} at all. If you want a target not to get the commands from @code{.DEFAULT}, but nor do you want any commands to be run for the target, you can give it empty commands. @xref{Empty Commands}. @node Suffix Rules, Search Algorithm, Last Resort, Implicit @section Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules @cindex suffix rules @dfn{Suffix rules} are the old-fashioned way of defining implicit rules for @code{make}. Suffix rules are obsolete because pattern rules are more general and clearer. They are supported in GNU @code{make} for compatibility with old makefiles. They come in two kinds: @dfn{double-suffix} and @dfn{single-suffix}.@refill A double-suffix rule is defined by a pair of suffixes: the target suffix and the source suffix. It matches any file whose name ends with the target suffix. The corresponding implicit dependency is to the file name made by replacing the target suffix with the source suffix. A two-suffix rule whose target and source suffixes are @samp{.o} and @samp{.c} is equivalent to the pattern rule @samp{%.o : %.c}. A single-suffix rule is defined by a single suffix, which is the source suffix. It matches any file name, and the corresponding implicit dependency name is made by appending the source suffix. A single-suffix rule whose source suffix is @samp{.c} is equivalent to the pattern rule @samp{% : %.c}. Suffix rule definitions are recognized by comparing each rule's target against a defined list of known suffixes. When @code{make} sees a rule whose target is a known suffix, this rule is considered a single-suffix rule. When @code{make} sees a rule whose target is two known suffixes concatenated, this rule is taken as a double-suffix rule. For example, @samp{.c} and @samp{.o} are both on the default list of known suffixes. Therefore, if you define a rule whose target is @samp{.c.o}, @code{make} takes it to be a double-suffix rule with source suffix @samp{.c} and target suffix @samp{.o}. For example, here is the old fashioned way to define the rule for compiling a C source:@refill @example .c.o: $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) -o $@@ $< @end example Suffix rules cannot have any dependencies of their own. If they have any, they are treated as normal files with funny names, not as suffix rules. Thus, the rule: @example .c.o: foo.h $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) -o $@@ $< @end example @noindent tells how to make the file @file{.c.o} from the dependency file @file{foo.h}, and is not at all like the pattern rule: @example %.o: %.c foo.h $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) -o $@@ $< @end example @noindent which tells how to make @code{.o} files from @code{.c} files, and makes all @code{.o} files using this pattern rule also depend on @file{foo.h}. Suffix rules with no commands are also meaningless. They do not remove previous rules as do pattern rules with no commands (@pxref{Canceling Rules}). They simply enter the suffix or pair of suffixes concatenated as a target in the data base.@refill @findex .SUFFIXES The known suffixes are simply the names of the dependencies of the special target @code{.SUFFIXES}. You can add your own suffixes by writing a rule for @code{.SUFFIXES} that adds more dependencies, as in: @example .SUFFIXES: .hack .win @end example @noindent which adds @samp{.hack} and @samp{.win} to the end of the list of suffixes. If you wish to eliminate the default known suffixes instead of just adding to them, write a rule for @code{.SUFFIXES} with no dependencies. By special dispensation, this eliminates all existing dependencies of @code{.SUFFIXES}. You can then write another rule to add the suffixes you want. For example, @example .SUFFIXES: # @r{Delete the default suffixes} .SUFFIXES: .c .o .h # @r{Define our suffix list} @end example The @samp{-r} flag causes the default list of suffixes to be empty. @vindex SUFFIXES The variable @code{SUFFIXES} is defined to the default list of suffixes before @code{make} reads any makefiles. You can change the list of suffixes with a rule for the special target @code{.SUFFIXES}, but that does not alter this variable. @node Search Algorithm, , Suffix Rules, Implicit @section Implicit Rule Search Algorithm Here is the procedure @code{make} uses for searching for an implicit rule for a target @var{t}. This procedure is followed for each double-colon rule with no commands, for each target of ordinary rules none of which have commands, and for each dependency that is not the target of any rule. It is also followed recursively for dependencies that come from implicit rules, in the search for a chain of rules. Suffix rules are not mentioned in this algorithm because suffix rules are converted to equivalent pattern rules once the makefiles have been read in. For an archive member target of the form @samp{@var{archive}(@var{member})}, the following algorithm is run twice, first using @samp{(@var{member})} as the target @var{t}, and second using the entire target if the first run found no rule.@refill @enumerate @item Split @var{t} into a directory part, called @var{d}, and the rest, called @var{n}. For example, if @var{t} is @samp{src/foo.o}, then @var{d} is @samp{src/} and @var{n} is @samp{foo.o}.@refill @item Make a list of all the pattern rules one of whose targets matches @var{t} or @var{n}. If the target pattern contains a slash, it is matched against @var{t}; otherwise, against @var{n}. @item If any rule in that list is @emph{not} a match-anything rule, then remove all nonterminal match-anything rules from the list. @item Remove from the list all rules with no commands. @item For each pattern rule in the list: @enumerate @item Find the stem @var{s}, which is the nonempty part of @var{t} or @var{n} matched by the @samp{%} in the target pattern.@refill @item Compute the dependency names by substituting @var{s} for @samp{%}; if the target pattern does not contain a slash, append @var{d} to the front of each dependency name.@refill @item Test whether all the dependencies exist or ought to exist. (If a file name is mentioned in the makefile as a target or as an explicit dependency then we say it ought to exist.) If all dependencies exist or ought to exist, or there are no dependencies, then this rule applies. @end enumerate @item If no pattern rule has been found so far, try harder. For each pattern rule in the list: @enumerate @item If the rule is terminal, ignore it and go on to the next rule. @item Compute the dependency names as before. @item Test whether all the dependencies exist or ought to exist. @item For each dependency that does not exist, follow this algorithm recursively to see if the dependency can be made by an implicit rule. @item If all dependencies exist, ought to exist, or can be made by implicit rules, then this rule applies. @end enumerate @item If no implicit rule applies, the rule for @code{.DEFAULT}, if any, applies. In that case, give @var{t} the same commands that @code{.DEFAULT} has. Otherwise, there are no commands for @var{t}. @end enumerate Once a rule that applies has been found, for each target pattern of the rule other than the one that matched @var{t} or @var{n}, the @samp{%} in the pattern is replaced with @var{s} and the resultant file name is stored until the commands to remake the target file @var{t} are executed. After these commands are executed, each of these stored file names are entered into the data base and marked as having been updated and having the same update status as the file @var{t}. When the commands of a pattern rule are executed for @var{t}, the automatic variables are set corresponding to the target and dependencies. @xref{Automatic}. @node Archives, Features, Implicit, Top @chapter Using @code{make} to Update Archive Files @cindex archive @dfn{Archive files} are files containing named subfiles called @dfn{members}; they are maintained with the program @code{ar} and their main use is as subroutine libraries for linking. @menu * Members: Archive Members. How to name an archive member as a target or dependency. * Update: Archive Update. An implicit rule can update most archive member targets just right. * Symbols: Archive Symbols. Special things to do for library archives. @end menu @node Archive Members, Archive Update, Archives, Archives @section Archive Members as Targets @cindex archive member targets An individual member of an archive file can be used as a target or dependency in @code{make}. The archive file must already exist, but the member need not exist. You specify the member named @var{member} in archive file @var{archive} as follows: @example @var{archive}(@var{member}) @end example @noindent This construct is available only in targets and dependencies, not in commands! Most programs that you might use in commands do not support this syntax and cannot act directly on archive members. Only @code{ar} and other programs specifically designed to operate on archives can do so. Therefore, valid commands to update an archive member target probably must use @code{ar}. For example, this rule says to create a member @file{hack.o} in archive @file{foolib} by copying the file @file{hack.o}: @example foolib(hack.o) : hack.o ar r foolib hack.o @end example In fact, nearly all archive member targets are updated in just this way and there is an implicit rule to do it for you. @node Archive Update, Archive Symbols, Archive Members, Archives @section Implicit Rule for Archive Member Targets Recall that a target that looks like @file{@var{a}(@var{m})} stands for the member named @var{m} in the archive file @var{a}. When @code{make} looks for an implicit rule for such a target, as a special feature it considers implicit rules that match @file{(@var{m})}, as well as those that match the actual target @file{@var{a}(@var{m})}. This causes one special rule whose target is @file{(%)} to match. This rule updates the target @file{@var{a}(@var{m})} by copying the file @var{m} into the archive. For example, it will update the archive member target @file{foo.a(bar.o)} by copying the @emph{file} @file{bar.o} into the archive @file{foo.a} as a @emph{member} named @file{bar.o}. When this rule is chained with others, the result is very powerful. Thus, @samp{make "foo.a(bar.o)"} in the presence of a file @file{bar.c} is enough to cause the following commands to be run, even without a makefile: @example cc -c bar.c -o bar.o ar r foo.a bar.o rm -f bar.o @end example @noindent Here @code{make} has envisioned the file @file{bar.o} as an intermediate file. Implicit rules such as this one are written using the automatic variable @samp{$%}. @xref{Automatic}. An archive member name in an archive cannot contain a directory name, but it may be useful in a makefile to pretend that it does. If you write an archive member target @file{foo.a(dir/file.o)}, @code{make} will perform automatic updating with this command: @example ar r foo.a dir/file.o @end example @noindent which has the effect of copying the file @file{dir/foo.o} into a member named @file{foo.o}. In connection with such usage, the automatic variables @code{%D} and @code{%F} may be useful. @node Archive Symbols, , Archive Update, Archives @subsection Updating Archive Symbol Directories @cindex __.SYMDEF An archive file that is used as a library usually contains a special member named @file{__.SYMDEF} that contains a directory of the external symbol names defined by all the other members. After you update any other members, you need to update @file{__.SYMDEF} so that it will summarize the other members properly. This is done by running the @code{ranlib} program: @example ranlib @var{archivefile} @end example Normally you would put this command in the rule for the archive file, and make all the members of the archive file dependents of that rule. For example, @example libfoo.a: libfoo.a(x.o) libfoo.a(y.o) @dots{} ranlib libfoo.a @end example @noindent The effect of this is to update archive members @file{x.o}, @file{y.o}, etc., and then update the symbol directory member @file{__.SYMDEF} by running @code{ranlib}. The rules for updating the members are not shown here; most likely you can omit them and use the implicit rule which copies files into the archive, as described in the preceding section. This is not necessary when using the GNU @code{ar} program, which updates the @file{__.SYMDEF} member automatically. @node Features, Missing, Archives, Top @chapter Features of GNU @code{make} Here is a summary of the features of GNU @code{make}, for comparison with and credit to other versions of @code{make}. We consider the features of @code{make} in BSD 4.2 systems as a baseline. Many features come from the version of @code{make} in System V. @itemize @bullet @item The @code{VPATH} variable and its special meaning. @xref{Directory Search}. This feature exists in System V @code{make}, but is undocumented. It is documented in 4.3 BSD @code{make} (which says it mimics System V's @code{VPATH} feature).@refill @item Included makefiles. @xref{Include}. @item Variables are read from and communicated via the environment. @xref{Environment}. @item Options passed through the variable @code{MAKEFLAGS} to recursive invocations of @code{make}. @xref{Options/Recursion}. @item The automatic variable @code{$%} is set to the member name in an archive reference. @xref{Automatic}. @item The automatic variables @code{$@@}, @code{$*}, @code{$<} and @code{$%} have corresponding forms like @code{$(@@F)} and @code{$(@@D)}. @xref{Automatic}.@refill @item Substitution variable references. @xref{Reference}. @item The command-line options @samp{-b} and @samp{-m}, accepted and ignored. @item Execution of recursive commands to run @code{make} via the variable @code{MAKE} even if @samp{-n}, @samp{-q} or @samp{-t} is specified. @xref{Recursion}. @item Support for suffix @samp{.a} in suffix rules. In GNU @code{make}, this is actually implemented by chaining with one pattern rule for installing members in an archive. @xref{Chained Rules}.@refill @item The arrangement of lines and backslash-newline combinations in commands is retained when the commands are printed, so they appear as they do in the makefile, except for the stripping of initial whitespace. @end itemize The following features were inspired by various other versions of @code{make}. In some cases it is unclear exactly which versions inspired which others. @itemize @bullet @item Pattern rules using @samp{%}. This has been implemented in several versions of @code{make}. We're not sure who invented it first, but it's been spread around a bit. @xref{Pattern Rules}.@refill @item Rule chaining and implicit intermediate files. This was implemented by Stu Feldman in his version of @code{make} for AT&T Eighth Edition Research Unix, and later by Andrew Hume of AT&T Bell Labs in his @code{mk} program. We don't really know if we got this from either of them or thought it up ourselves at the same time. @xref{Chained Rules}. @item The automatic variable @code{$^} containing a list of all dependencies of the current target. We didn't invent this, but we have no idea who did. @xref{Automatic}. @item The ``what if'' flag (@samp{-W} in GNU @code{make}) was (as far as we know) invented by Andrew Hume in @code{mk}. @xref{Instead of Execution}. @item The concept of doing several things at once (parallelism) exists in many incarnations of @code{make} and similar programs, though not in the System V or BSD implementations. @xref{Execution}. @item Modified variable references using pattern substitution come from SunOS 4.0. @xref{Reference}. This functionality was provided in GNU @code{make} by the @code{patsubst} function before the alternate syntax was implemented for compatibility with SunOS 4.0. It is not altogether clear who inspired whom, since GNU @code{make} had @code{patsubst} before SunOS 4.0 was released.@refill @item The special significance of @samp{+} characters preceding command lines (@pxref{Instead of Execution}) is mandated by draft 8 of IEEE Std 1003.2 (POSIX).@refill @end itemize The remaining features are inventions new in GNU @code{make}: @itemize @bullet @item The @samp{-v} option to print version and copyright information. @item Simply-expanded variables. @xref{Flavors}. @item Passing command-line variable assignments automatically through the variable @code{MAKE} to recursive @code{make} invocations. @xref{Recursion}. @item The @samp{-C} command option to change directory. @xref{Options}. @item Verbatim variable definitions made with @code{define}. @xref{Defining}. @item Phony targets declared with the special target @code{.PHONY}. A similar feature with a different syntax was implemented by Andrew Hume of AT&T Bell Labs in his @code{mk} program. This seems to be a case of parallel discovery. @xref{Phony Targets}. @item Text manipulation by calling functions. @xref{Functions}. @item The @samp{-o} option to pretend a file's modification-time is old. @xref{Avoiding Compilation}. @item Conditional execution. This has been implemented numerous times in various versions of @code{make}; it seems a natural extension derived from the features of the C preprocessor and similar macro languages and is not a revolutionary concept. @xref{Conditionals}. @item The included makefile search path. @xref{Include}. @item Specifying extra makefiles to read. @xref{MAKEFILES Variable}. @item Stripping leading sequences of @samp{./} from file names, so that @file{./@var{file}} and @file{@var{file}} are considered to be the same file.@refill @item Special search method for library dependencies written in the form @samp{-l@var{name}}. @xref{Libraries/Search}. @item Allowing suffixes for suffix rules (@pxref{Suffix Rules}) to contain any characters. In other version of @code{make}, they must begin with @samp{.} and not contain any @samp{/} characters. @item The variable @code{MAKELEVEL} which keeps track of the current level of @code{make} recursion. @xref{Recursion}. @item Static pattern rules. @xref{Static Pattern}. @item Selective @code{vpath} search. @xref{Directory Search}. @item Recursive variable references. @xref{Reference}. @item Updated makefiles. @xref{Remaking Makefiles}. System V @code{make} has a very, very limited form of this functionality in that it will check out SCCS files for makefiles. @item Several new built-in implicit rules. @xref{Catalogue of Rules}. @end itemize @node Missing, Concept Index, Features, Top @chapter Missing Features in GNU @code{make} The @code{make} programs in various other systems support a few features that are not implemented in GNU @code{make}. Draft 11.1 of the POSIX.2 standard which specifies @code{make} does not require any of these features.@refill @itemize @bullet @item A target of the form @samp{@var{file}((@var{entry}))} stands for a member of archive file @var{file}. The member is chosen, not by name, but by being an object file which defines the linker symbol @var{entry}.@refill This feature was not put into GNU @code{make} because of the nonmodularity of putting knowledge into @code{make} of the internal format of archive file symbol directories. @xref{Archive Symbols}. @item Suffixes (used in suffix rules) that end with the character @samp{~} have a special meaning; they refer to the SCCS file that corresponds to the file one would get without the @samp{~}. For example, the suffix rule @samp{.c~.o} would make the file @file{@var{n}.o} file from the SCCS file @file{s.@var{n}.c}. For complete coverage, a whole series of such suffix rules is required. @xref{Suffix Rules}.@refill In GNU @code{make}, this entire series of cases is handled by two pattern rules for extraction from SCCS, in combination with the general feature of rule chaining. @xref{Chained Rules}. @item In System V @code{make}, the string @samp{$$@@} has the strange meaning that, in the dependencies of a rule with multiple targets, it stands for the particular target that is being processed. This is not defined in GNU @code{make} because @samp{$$} should always stand for an ordinary @samp{$}. It is possible to get this functionality through the use of static pattern rules (@pxref{Static Pattern}). The System V @code{make} rule: @example $(targets): $$@@.o lib.a @end example @noindent can be replaced with the GNU @code{make} static pattern rule: @example $(targets): %: %.o lib.a @end example @item In System V and 4.3 BSD @code{make}, files found by @code{VPATH} search (@pxref{Directory Search}) have their names changed inside command strings. We feel it is much cleaner to always use automatic variables and thus make this feature obsolete.@refill @item In some Unix @code{make}s, implicit rule search (@pxref{Implicit}) is apparently done for @emph{all} targets, not just those without commands. This means you can do:@refill @example foo.o: cc -c foo.c @end example @noindent and Unix @code{make} will intuit that @file{foo.o} depends on @file{foo.c}.@refill We feel that such usage is broken. The dependency properties of @code{make} are well-defined (for GNU @code{make}, at least), and doing such a thing simply does not fit the model.@refill @end itemize @node Concept Index, Name Index, Missing, Top @unnumbered Index of Concepts @printindex cp @node Name Index, , Concept Index, Top @unnumbered Index of Functions, Variables, and Directives @printindex fn @summarycontents @contents @bye